1
|
Simonet B, Herrscher V, Witjaksono C, Chaignon P, Massicot F, Vasse JL, Seemann M, Behr JB. Carbohydrate-Templated Syntheses of Trifluoromethyl-Substituted MEP Analogues for the Study of the Methylerythritol Phosphate Pathway. J Org Chem 2023; 88:15832-15843. [PMID: 37917513 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.3c01910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
Trifluoromethyl analogues of methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) and 2-C-methyl-erythritol 2,4-cyclodiphosphate (MEcPP), natural substrates of key enzymes from the MEP pathway, were prepared starting from d-glucose as the chiral template to secure absolute configurations. The obligate trifluoromethyl group was inserted with complete diastereoselectivity using the Ruppert-Prakash nucleophile. Target compounds were assayed against the corresponding enzymes showing that trifluoro-MEP did not disrupt IspD activity, whereas trifluoro-MEcPP induced 40% inhibition of IspG at 1 mM.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Basile Simonet
- Institut de Chimie moléculaire de Reims, CNRS UMR 7312, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51687 Reims, Cedex 2, France
| | - Vivien Herrscher
- Institut de Chimie moléculaire de Reims, CNRS UMR 7312, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51687 Reims, Cedex 2, France
| | - Clea Witjaksono
- Equipe Chimie Biologique et Applications Thérapeutiques, Institut de Chimie de Strasbourg UMR 7177, Université de Strasbourg/CNRS, 4, Rue Blaise Pascal, 67070 Strasbourg, France
| | - Philippe Chaignon
- Equipe Chimie Biologique et Applications Thérapeutiques, Institut de Chimie de Strasbourg UMR 7177, Université de Strasbourg/CNRS, 4, Rue Blaise Pascal, 67070 Strasbourg, France
| | - Fabien Massicot
- Institut de Chimie moléculaire de Reims, CNRS UMR 7312, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51687 Reims, Cedex 2, France
| | - Jean-Luc Vasse
- Institut de Chimie moléculaire de Reims, CNRS UMR 7312, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51687 Reims, Cedex 2, France
| | - Myriam Seemann
- Equipe Chimie Biologique et Applications Thérapeutiques, Institut de Chimie de Strasbourg UMR 7177, Université de Strasbourg/CNRS, 4, Rue Blaise Pascal, 67070 Strasbourg, France
| | - Jean-Bernard Behr
- Institut de Chimie moléculaire de Reims, CNRS UMR 7312, Université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne, 51687 Reims, Cedex 2, France
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Schüren AO, Ridgway BM, Di Salvo F, Carella LM, Gramm VK, Metzger E, Doctorovich F, Rentschler E, Schünemann V, Ruschewitz U, Klein A. Structural insight into halide-coordinated [Fe 4S 4X nY 4-n] 2- clusters (X, Y = Cl, Br, I) by XRD and Mössbauer spectroscopy. Dalton Trans 2023; 52:1277-1290. [PMID: 36621931 DOI: 10.1039/d2dt03203a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Iron sulphur halide clusters [Fe4S4Br4]2- and [Fe4S4X2Y2]2- (X, Y = Cl, Br, I) were obtained in excellent yields (77 to 78%) and purity from [Fe(CO)5], elemental sulphur, I2 and benzyltrimethylammonium (BTMA+) iodide, bromide and chloride. Single crystals of (BTMA)2[Fe4S4Br4] (1), (BTMA)2[Fe4S4Br2Cl2] (2), (BTMA)2[Fe4S4Cl2I2] (3), and (BTMA)2[Fe4S4Br2I2] (4) were isostructural to the previously reported (BTMA)2[Fe4S4I4] (5) (monoclinic, Cc). Instead of the chloride cubane cluster [Fe4S4Cl4]2-, we found the prismane-shaped cluster (BTMA)3[Fe6S6Cl6] (6) (P1̄). 57Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy indicates complete delocalisation with Fe2.5+ oxidation states for all iron atoms. Magnetic measurements showed small χMT values at 298 K ranging from 1.12 to 1.54 cm3 K mol-1, indicating the dominant antiferromagnetic exchange interactions. With decreasing temperature, the χMT values decreased to reach a plateau at around 100 K. From about 20 K, the values drop significantly. Fitting the data in the Heisenberg-Dirac-van Vleck (HDvV) as well as the Heisenberg Double Exchange (HDE) formalism confirmed the delocalisation and antiferromagnetic coupling assumed from Mössbauer spectroscopy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas O Schüren
- Universität zu Köln, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät, Department für Chemie, Institut für Anorganische Chemie, Greinstraße 6, D-50939 Köln, Germany. .,INQUIMAE-CONICET-Universidad de Buenos Aires, Intendente Güiraldes 2160, Pabellón 2, Piso 3, C1428EGA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Benjamin M Ridgway
- INQUIMAE-CONICET-Universidad de Buenos Aires, Intendente Güiraldes 2160, Pabellón 2, Piso 3, C1428EGA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Florencia Di Salvo
- INQUIMAE-CONICET-Universidad de Buenos Aires, Intendente Güiraldes 2160, Pabellón 2, Piso 3, C1428EGA, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Analítica y Química Física, Intendente Güiraldes 2160, Pabellón 2, Piso 3, C1428EGA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Luca M Carella
- Johannes Gutenberg Universität Mainz, Department Chemie, Duesbergweg 10-14, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Verena K Gramm
- Universität zu Köln, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät, Department für Chemie, Institut für Anorganische Chemie, Greinstraße 6, D-50939 Köln, Germany.
| | - Elisa Metzger
- TU Kaiserlautern Department of Physics, 67663 Kaiserlautern, Germany
| | - Fabio Doctorovich
- INQUIMAE-CONICET-Universidad de Buenos Aires, Intendente Güiraldes 2160, Pabellón 2, Piso 3, C1428EGA, Buenos Aires, Argentina.,Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Departamento de Química Inorgánica, Analítica y Química Física, Intendente Güiraldes 2160, Pabellón 2, Piso 3, C1428EGA, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Eva Rentschler
- Johannes Gutenberg Universität Mainz, Department Chemie, Duesbergweg 10-14, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Volker Schünemann
- TU Kaiserlautern Department of Physics, 67663 Kaiserlautern, Germany
| | - Uwe Ruschewitz
- Universität zu Köln, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät, Department für Chemie, Institut für Anorganische Chemie, Greinstraße 6, D-50939 Köln, Germany.
| | - Axel Klein
- Universität zu Köln, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Fakultät, Department für Chemie, Institut für Anorganische Chemie, Greinstraße 6, D-50939 Köln, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Jamod H, Mehta K, Sakariya A, Shoukani S, Sanapalli BKR, Yele V. Dual Acting Immuno-Antibiotics: Computational Investigation on Antibacterial Efficacy of Immune Boosters Against Isoprenoid H Enzyme. Assay Drug Dev Technol 2022; 20:225-236. [PMID: 35834649 DOI: 10.1089/adt.2022.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug-resistant infections have become a serious threat to human health in the past two decades. Global Antimicrobial Surveillance (GLASS) in January 2018 reported widespread antibiotic resistance among 1.5 million people infected with bacteria across 22 countries. According to prominent economist Jim O'Neil, antimicrobial resistance is estimated to kill ∼10 million people affected by microorganisms each year by 2050. Even though multiple therapeutics are now available to treat the infections, more and more bacterial strains have acquired resistance to these treatments through various techniques. Moreover, the decrease in the pipeline of antibacterial medicines under clinical development has become a significant problem. In this scenario, the development of novel antibiotics that act on untapped pathways is necessary to combat the bacterial infections. Isoprenoid H (IspH) synthetase has become an attractive antibacterial target as there is no human homologue. IspH is an enzyme involved in methyl-d-erythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway of isoprenoid synthesis and is conserved in gram-negative bacteria, mycobacteria, and apicomplexans. Since, IspH is a novel therapeutic target, explorations are only just beginning, and despite the progress made in this area, no single IspH inhibitor is available in the market for therapeutic use. In this article, we have repurposed 35 immune boosters against IspH enzyme using methods such as extra-precision docking and Molecular Mechanics Generalized Born Surface Area (MMGBSA). Among them, 4'-fluorouridine was found to be active because of its glide score and significant binding affinity with IspH enzyme. Furthermore, this study requires more in vitro, in vivo, and molecular dynamics studies to support our findings.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hitesh Jamod
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Marwadi University, Rajkot, India
| | - Kajal Mehta
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Marwadi University, Rajkot, India
| | | | | | - Bharat Kumar Reddy Sanapalli
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Marwadi University, Rajkot, Gujarat, India.,Department of Pharmacology, NIMS Institute of Pharmacy, NIMS University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
| | - Vidyasrilekha Yele
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Marwadi University, Rajkot, Gujarat, India.,Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, NIMS Institute of Pharmacy, NIMS University, Jaipur, Rajasthan, India
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Jobelius H, Bianchino GI, Borel F, Chaignon P, Seemann M. The Reductive Dehydroxylation Catalyzed by IspH, a Source of Inspiration for the Development of Novel Anti-Infectives. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27030708. [PMID: 35163971 PMCID: PMC8837944 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27030708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2021] [Revised: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The non-mevalonate or also called MEP pathway is an essential route for the biosynthesis of isoprenoid precursors in most bacteria and in microorganisms belonging to the Apicomplexa phylum, such as the parasite responsible for malaria. The absence of this pathway in mammalians makes it an interesting target for the discovery of novel anti-infectives. As last enzyme of this pathway, IspH is an oxygen sensitive [4Fe-4S] metalloenzyme that catalyzes 2H+/2e− reductions and a water elimination by involving non-conventional bioinorganic and bioorganometallic intermediates. After a detailed description of the discovery of the [4Fe-4S] cluster of IspH, this review focuses on the IspH mechanism discussing the results that have been obtained in the last decades using an approach combining chemistry, enzymology, crystallography, spectroscopies, and docking calculations. Considering the interesting druggability of this enzyme, a section about the inhibitors of IspH discovered up to now is reported as well. The presented results constitute a useful and rational help to inaugurate the design and development of new potential chemotherapeutics against pathogenic organisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Jobelius
- Equipe Chimie Biologique et Applications Thérapeutiques, Institut de Chimie de Strasbourg UMR 7177, Université de Strasbourg/CNRS, 4, rue Blaise Pascal, 67070 Strasbourg, France; (H.J.); (G.I.B.); (P.C.)
| | - Gabriella Ines Bianchino
- Equipe Chimie Biologique et Applications Thérapeutiques, Institut de Chimie de Strasbourg UMR 7177, Université de Strasbourg/CNRS, 4, rue Blaise Pascal, 67070 Strasbourg, France; (H.J.); (G.I.B.); (P.C.)
| | - Franck Borel
- Institut de Biologie Structurale, Université Grenoble Alpes/CEA/CNRS, 38000 Grenoble, France;
| | - Philippe Chaignon
- Equipe Chimie Biologique et Applications Thérapeutiques, Institut de Chimie de Strasbourg UMR 7177, Université de Strasbourg/CNRS, 4, rue Blaise Pascal, 67070 Strasbourg, France; (H.J.); (G.I.B.); (P.C.)
| | - Myriam Seemann
- Equipe Chimie Biologique et Applications Thérapeutiques, Institut de Chimie de Strasbourg UMR 7177, Université de Strasbourg/CNRS, 4, rue Blaise Pascal, 67070 Strasbourg, France; (H.J.); (G.I.B.); (P.C.)
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Chaignon P, Petit BE, Vincent B, Allouche L, Seemann M. Methylerythritol Phosphate Pathway: Enzymatic Evidence for a Rotation in the LytB/IspH-Catalyzed Reaction. Chemistry 2020; 26:1032-1036. [PMID: 31756006 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201904676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
IspH/LytB, an oxygen-sensitive [4Fe-4S] enzyme, catalyzes the last step of the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway, a target for the development of new antimicrobial agents. This metalloenzyme converts (E)-4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl diphosphate (HMBPP) into the two isoprenoid precursors: isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP). Here, the synthesis of (S)-[4-2 H1 ]HMBPP and (R)-[4-2 H1 ]HMBPP is reported together with a detailed NMR analysis of the products formed after their respective incubation with E. coli IspH/LytB in the presence of the biological reduction system used by E. coli to reduce the [4Fe-4S] center. (S)-[4-2 H1 ]HMBPP was converted into [4-2 H1 ]DMAPP and (E)-[4-2 H1 ]IPP, whereas (R)-[4-2 H1 ]HMBPP yielded [4-2 H1 ]DMAPP and (Z)-[4-2 H1 ]IPP, hence providing the direct enzymatic evidence that the mechanism catalyzed by IspH/LytB involves a rotation of the CH2 OH group of the substrate to display it away from the [4Fe-4S].
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Chaignon
- Equipe Chimie Biologique et Applications Thérapeutiques, Institut de Chimie UMR 7177, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, 4, rue Blaise Pascal, 67070, Strasbourg, France
| | - Benoît Eric Petit
- Equipe Chimie Biologique et Applications Thérapeutiques, Institut de Chimie UMR 7177, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, 4, rue Blaise Pascal, 67070, Strasbourg, France
| | - Bruno Vincent
- Service de R.M.N., Fédération de Chimie Le Bel FR2010, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, 1, rue Blaise Pascal, 67008, Strasbourg, France
| | - Lionel Allouche
- Service de R.M.N., Fédération de Chimie Le Bel FR2010, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, 1, rue Blaise Pascal, 67008, Strasbourg, France
| | - Myriam Seemann
- Equipe Chimie Biologique et Applications Thérapeutiques, Institut de Chimie UMR 7177, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, 4, rue Blaise Pascal, 67070, Strasbourg, France
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Borel F, Barbier E, Krasutsky S, Janthawornpong K, Chaignon P, Poulter CD, Ferrer JL, Seemann M. Further Insight into Crystal Structures of Escherichia coli IspH/LytB in Complex with Two Potent Inhibitors of the MEP Pathway: A Starting Point for Rational Design of New Antimicrobials. Chembiochem 2017; 18:2137-2144. [PMID: 28862365 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201700363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
IspH, also called LytB, a protein involved in the biosynthesis of isoprenoids through the methylerythritol phosphate pathway, is an attractive target for the development of new antimicrobial drugs. Here, we report crystal structures of Escherichia coli IspH in complex with the two most potent inhibitors: (E)-4-mercapto-3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl diphosphate (TMBPP) and (E)-4-amino-3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl diphosphate (AMBPP) at 1.95 and 1.7 Å resolution, respectively. The structure of the E. coli IspH:TMBPP complex exhibited two conformers of the inhibitor. This unexpected feature was exploited to design and evolve new antimicrobial candidates in silico.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Franck Borel
- Institut de Biologie Structurale IBS, Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, 38044, Grenoble, France
| | - Elodie Barbier
- Institut de Biologie Structurale IBS, Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, 38044, Grenoble, France
| | - Sergiy Krasutsky
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 South 1400 East RM 2020, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA
| | - Karnjapan Janthawornpong
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut de Chimie UMR 7177, Chim Biol&Appl Therap, 4, rue Blaise Pascal, 67070, Strasbourg, France
| | - Philippe Chaignon
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut de Chimie UMR 7177, Chim Biol&Appl Therap, 4, rue Blaise Pascal, 67070, Strasbourg, France
| | - C Dale Poulter
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 South 1400 East RM 2020, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA
| | - Jean-Luc Ferrer
- Institut de Biologie Structurale IBS, Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, 38044, Grenoble, France
| | - Myriam Seemann
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Institut de Chimie UMR 7177, Chim Biol&Appl Therap, 4, rue Blaise Pascal, 67070, Strasbourg, France
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
O'Dowd B, Williams S, Wang H, No JH, Rao G, Wang W, McCammon JA, Cramer SP, Oldfield E. Spectroscopic and Computational Investigations of Ligand Binding to IspH: Discovery of Non-diphosphate Inhibitors. Chembiochem 2017; 18:914-920. [PMID: 28253432 PMCID: PMC5445010 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201700052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Isoprenoid biosynthesis is an important area for anti-infective drug development. One isoprenoid target is (E)-1-hydroxy-2-methyl-but-2-enyl 4-diphosphate (HMBPP) reductase (IspH), which forms isopentenyl diphosphate and dimethylallyl diphosphate from HMBPP in a 2H+ /2e- reduction. IspH contains a 4 Fe-4 S cluster, and in this work, we first investigated how small molecules bound to the cluster by using HYSCORE and NRVS spectroscopies. The results of these, as well as other structural and spectroscopic investigations, led to the conclusion that, in most cases, ligands bound to IspH 4 Fe-4 S clusters by η1 coordination, forming tetrahedral geometries at the unique fourth Fe, ligand side chains preventing further ligand (e.g., H2 O, O2 ) binding. Based on these ideas, we used in silico methods to find drug-like inhibitors that might occupy the HMBPP substrate binding pocket and bind to Fe, leading to the discovery of a barbituric acid analogue with a Ki value of ≈500 nm against Pseudomonas aeruginosa IspH.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bing O'Dowd
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Sarah Williams
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Hongxin Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Joo Hwan No
- Center for Biophysics and Computational Biology, 607 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Guodong Rao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Weixue Wang
- Center for Biophysics and Computational Biology, 607 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - J Andrew McCammon
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
- National Biomedical Computation Resource, University of California at San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA
| | - Stephen P Cramer
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, 1 Shields Avenue, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| | - Eric Oldfield
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
The competition between chemistry and biology in assembling iron-sulfur derivatives. Molecular structures and electrochemistry. Part IV. {[Fe3S4](SγCys)3} proteins. Inorganica Chim Acta 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ica.2016.09.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
|
9
|
Affiliation(s)
- Annika Frank
- Center for Integrated Protein
Science Munich (CIPSM) at the Department Chemie, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstraße 4, 85748 Garching, Germany
| | - Michael Groll
- Center for Integrated Protein
Science Munich (CIPSM) at the Department Chemie, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstraße 4, 85748 Garching, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Saggu GS, Pala ZR, Garg S, Saxena V. New Insight into Isoprenoids Biosynthesis Process and Future Prospects for Drug Designing in Plasmodium. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:1421. [PMID: 27679614 PMCID: PMC5020098 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Accepted: 08/26/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The MEP (Methyl Erythritol Phosphate) isoprenoids biosynthesis pathway is an attractive drug target to combat malaria, due to its uniqueness and indispensability for the parasite. It is functional in the apicoplast of Plasmodium and its products get transported to the cytoplasm, where they participate in glycoprotein synthesis, electron transport chain, tRNA modification and several other biological processes. Several compounds have been tested against the enzymes involved in this pathway and amongst them Fosmidomycin, targeted against IspC (DXP reductoisomerase) enzyme and MMV008138 targeted against IspD enzyme have shown good anti-malarial activity in parasite cultures. Fosmidomycin is now-a-days prescribed clinically, however, less absorption, shorter half-life, and toxicity at higher doses, limits its use as an anti-malarial. The potential of other enzymes of the pathway as candidate drug targets has also been determined. This review details the various drug molecules tested against these targets with special emphasis to Plasmodium. We corroborate that MEP pathway functional within the apicoplast of Plasmodium is a major drug target, especially during erythrocytic stages. However, the major bottlenecks, bioavailability and toxicity of the new molecules needs to be addressed, before considering any new molecule as a potent antimalarial.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gagandeep S Saggu
- Molecular Parasitology and Systems Biology Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani, India
| | - Zarna R Pala
- Molecular Parasitology and Systems Biology Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani, India
| | - Shilpi Garg
- Molecular Parasitology and Systems Biology Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani, India
| | - Vishal Saxena
- Molecular Parasitology and Systems Biology Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Birla Institute of Technology and Science Pilani, India
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Faus I, Reinhard A, Rackwitz S, Wolny JA, Schlage K, Wille HC, Chumakov A, Krasutsky S, Chaignon P, Poulter CD, Seemann M, Schünemann V. Isoprenoidbiosynthese in pathogenen Bakterien: Nukleare inelastische Streuung ermöglicht Einblicke in den ungewöhnlichen [4Fe-4S]-Cluster vom E.- coli-Protein LytB/IspH. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201502494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
|
12
|
Abdel-Azeim S, Jedidi A, Eppinger J, Cavallo L. Mechanistic insights into the reductive dehydroxylation pathway for the biosynthesis of isoprenoids promoted by the IspH enzyme. Chem Sci 2015; 6:5643-5651. [PMID: 28757951 PMCID: PMC5511988 DOI: 10.1039/c5sc01693b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Here, we report an integrated quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) study of the bio-organometallic reaction pathway of the 2H+/2e- reduction of (E)-4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-enyl pyrophosphate (HMBPP) into the so called universal terpenoid precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), promoted by the IspH enzyme. Our results support the viability of the bio-organometallic pathway through rotation of the OH group of HMBPP away from the [Fe4S4] cluster at the core of the catalytic site, to become engaged in a H-bond with Glu126. This rotation is synchronous with π-coordination of the C2[double bond, length as m-dash]C3 double bond of HMBPP to the apical Fe atom of the [Fe4S4] cluster. Dehydroxylation of HMBPP is triggered by a proton transfer from Glu126 to the OH group of HMBPP. The reaction pathway is completed by competitive proton transfer from the terminal phosphate group to the C2 or C4 atom of HMBPP.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Safwat Abdel-Azeim
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology , KAUST Catalysis Research Center , Physical Sciences and Engineering Division , Thuwal 23955-6900 , Saudi Arabia .
| | - Abdesslem Jedidi
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology , KAUST Catalysis Research Center , Physical Sciences and Engineering Division , Thuwal 23955-6900 , Saudi Arabia .
| | - Jorg Eppinger
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology , KAUST Catalysis Research Center , Physical Sciences and Engineering Division , Thuwal 23955-6900 , Saudi Arabia .
| | - Luigi Cavallo
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology , KAUST Catalysis Research Center , Physical Sciences and Engineering Division , Thuwal 23955-6900 , Saudi Arabia .
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Faus I, Reinhard A, Rackwitz S, Wolny JA, Schlage K, Wille HC, Chumakov A, Krasutsky S, Chaignon P, Poulter CD, Seemann M, Schünemann V. Isoprenoid Biosynthesis in Pathogenic Bacteria: Nuclear Resonance Vibrational Spectroscopy Provides Insight into the Unusual [4Fe-4S] Cluster of the E. coli LytB/IspH Protein. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015; 54:12584-7. [PMID: 26118554 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201502494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The LytB/IspH protein catalyzes the last step of the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway which is used for the biosynthesis of essential terpenoids in most pathogenic bacteria. Therefore, the MEP pathway is a target for the development of new antimicrobial agents as it is essential for microorganisms, yet absent in humans. Substrate-free LytB has a special [4Fe-4S](2+) cluster with a yet unsolved structure. This motivated us to use synchrotron-based nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy (NRVS) in combination with quantum chemical-molecular mechanical (QM/MM) calculations to gain more insight into the structure of substrate-free LytB. The apical iron atom of the [4Fe-4S](2+) is clearly linked to three water molecules. We additionally present NRVS data of LytB bound to its natural substrate, (E)-4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl diphosphate (HMBPP) and to the inhibitors (E)-4-amino-3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl diphosphate and (E)-4-mercapto-3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl diphosphate.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isabelle Faus
- Fachbereich Physik, TU Kaiserslautern, Erwin-Schrödinger-Strasse 46, 67653 Kaiserslautern (Germany)
| | - Annegret Reinhard
- Fachbereich Physik, TU Kaiserslautern, Erwin-Schrödinger-Strasse 46, 67653 Kaiserslautern (Germany)
| | - Sergej Rackwitz
- Fachbereich Physik, TU Kaiserslautern, Erwin-Schrödinger-Strasse 46, 67653 Kaiserslautern (Germany)
| | - Juliusz A Wolny
- Fachbereich Physik, TU Kaiserslautern, Erwin-Schrödinger-Strasse 46, 67653 Kaiserslautern (Germany)
| | - Kai Schlage
- P01, Petra III, DESY, Notkestrasse 85, D-22607 Hamburg (Germany)
| | | | - Aleksandr Chumakov
- ESRF - The European Synchrotron, CS40220, 38043 Grenoble Cedex 9 (France)
| | - Sergiy Krasutsky
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 South 1400 East RM 2020, Salt Lake City, UT 84112 (USA)
| | - Philippe Chaignon
- Université de Strasbourg, UMR 7177 CNRS, Institut Le Bel, 4 rue Blaise Pascal, CS 90032, 67081 Strasbourg Cedex (France)
| | - C Dale Poulter
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 South 1400 East RM 2020, Salt Lake City, UT 84112 (USA)
| | - Myriam Seemann
- Université de Strasbourg, UMR 7177 CNRS, Institut Le Bel, 4 rue Blaise Pascal, CS 90032, 67081 Strasbourg Cedex (France).
| | - Volker Schünemann
- Fachbereich Physik, TU Kaiserslautern, Erwin-Schrödinger-Strasse 46, 67653 Kaiserslautern (Germany).
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Blachly PG, Sandala GM, Giammona DA, Bashford D, McCammon JA, Noodleman L. Broken-Symmetry DFT Computations for the Reaction Pathway of IspH, an Iron-Sulfur Enzyme in Pathogenic Bacteria. Inorg Chem 2015; 54:6439-61. [PMID: 26098647 PMCID: PMC4568833 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.5b00751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The recently discovered methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway provides new targets for the development of antibacterial and antimalarial drugs. In the final step of the MEP pathway, the [4Fe-4S] IspH protein catalyzes the 2e(-)/2H(+) reductive dehydroxylation of (E)-4-hydroxy-3-methyl-but-2-enyl diphosphate (HMBPP) to afford the isoprenoid precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP). Recent experiments have attempted to elucidate the IspH catalytic mechanism to drive inhibitor development. Two competing mechanisms have recently emerged, differentiated by their proposed HMBPP binding modes upon 1e(-) reduction of the [4Fe-4S] cluster: (1) a Birch reduction mechanism, in which HMBPP remains bound to the [4Fe-4S] cluster through its terminal C4-OH group (ROH-bound) until the -OH is cleaved as water; and (2) an organometallic mechanism, in which the C4-OH group rotates away from the [4Fe-4S] cluster, allowing the HMBPP olefin group to form a metallacycle complex with the apical iron (η(2)-bound). We perform broken-symmetry density functional theory computations to assess the energies and reduction potentials associated with the ROH- and η(2)-bound states implicated by these competing mechanisms. Reduction potentials obtained for ROH-bound states are more negative (-1.4 to -1.0 V) than what is typically expected of [4Fe-4S] ferredoxin proteins. Instead, we find that η(2)-bound states are lower in energy than ROH-bound states when the [4Fe-4S] cluster is 1e(-) reduced. Furthermore, η(2)-bound states can already be generated in the oxidized state, yielding reduction potentials of ca. -700 mV when electron addition occurs after rotation of the HMBPP C4-OH group. We demonstrate that such η(2)-bound states are kinetically accessible both when the IspH [4Fe-4S] cluster is oxidized and 1e(-) reduced. The energetically preferred pathway gives 1e(-) reduction of the cluster after substrate conformational change, generating the 1e(-) reduced intermediate proposed in the organometallic mechanism.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Gregory M Sandala
- ‡Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Mount Allison University, 63C York Street, Sackville, New Brunswick E4L 1G8, Canada
| | - Debra Ann Giammona
- §Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, Tennessee 38105, United States
| | - Donald Bashford
- §Department of Structural Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 262 Danny Thomas Place, Memphis, Tennessee 38105, United States
| | | | - Louis Noodleman
- #Department of Integrative Structural and Computational Biology, CB213, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Masini T, Hirsch AKH. Development of Inhibitors of the 2C-Methyl-d-erythritol 4-Phosphate (MEP) Pathway Enzymes as Potential Anti-Infective Agents. J Med Chem 2014; 57:9740-63. [DOI: 10.1021/jm5010978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tiziana Masini
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh
7, NL-9747
AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Anna K. H. Hirsch
- Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh
7, NL-9747
AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Span I, Wang K, Eisenreich W, Bacher A, Zhang Y, Oldfield E, Groll M. Insights into the binding of pyridines to the iron-sulfur enzyme IspH. J Am Chem Soc 2014; 136:7926-32. [PMID: 24813236 PMCID: PMC4063180 DOI: 10.1021/ja501127j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
(E)-1-Hydroxy-2-methylbut-2-enyl 4-diphosphate reductase (IspH) is a [Fe4S4] cluster-containing enzyme involved in isoprenoid biosynthesis in many bacteria as well as in malaria parasites and is an important drug target. Several inhibitors including amino and thiol substrate analogues, as well as acetylene and pyridine diphosphates, have been reported. Here, we investigate the mode of binding of four pyridine diphosphates to Escherichia coli IspH by using X-ray crystallography. In three cases, one of the iron atoms in the cluster is absent, but in the structure with (pyridin-3-yl)methyl diphosphate, the most potent pyridine-analogue inhibitor reported previously, the fourth iron of the [Fe4S4] cluster is present and interacts with the pyridine ring of the ligand. Based on the results of quantum chemical calculations together with the crystallographic results we propose a side-on η(2) coordination of the nitrogen and the carbon in the 2-position of the pyridine ring to the unique fourth iron in the cluster, which is in the reduced state. The X-ray structure enables excellent predictions using density functional theory of the (14)N hyperfine coupling and quadrupole coupling constants reported previously using HYSCORE spectroscopy, as well as providing a further example of the ability of such [Fe4S4]-containing proteins to form organometallic complexes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid Span
- Center
for Integrated Protein Science Munich, Chemistry Department, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstrasse 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Ke Wang
- Department
of Chemistry, 600 South
Mathews Avenue, University
of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Wolfgang Eisenreich
- Center
for Integrated Protein Science Munich, Chemistry Department, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstrasse 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Adelbert Bacher
- Center
for Integrated Protein Science Munich, Chemistry Department, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstrasse 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| | - Yong Zhang
- Department
of Chemistry, Chemical Biology, and Biomedical Engineering, Stevens Institute of Technology, Castle Point on Hudson, Hoboken, New Jersey 07030, United States
| | - Eric Oldfield
- Department
of Chemistry, 600 South
Mathews Avenue, University
of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Michael Groll
- Center
for Integrated Protein Science Munich, Chemistry Department, Technische Universität München, Lichtenbergstrasse 4, 85747 Garching, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Wang W, Oldfield E. Biometallorganische Chemie mit IspG und IspH: Struktur, Funktion und Hemmung der an der Isoprenoid-Biosynthese beteiligten [Fe 4S 4]-Proteine. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201306712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
|
18
|
Wang W, Oldfield E. Bioorganometallic chemistry with IspG and IspH: structure, function, and inhibition of the [Fe(4)S(4)] proteins involved in isoprenoid biosynthesis. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014; 53:4294-310. [PMID: 24481599 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201306712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Enzymes of the methylerythritol phosphate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis are attractive anti-infective drug targets. The last two enzymes of this pathway, IspG and IspH, are [Fe4 S4 ] proteins that are not produced by humans and catalyze 2 H(+) / 2 e(-) reductions with novel mechanisms. In this Review, we summarize recent advances in structural, mechanistic, and inhibitory studies of these two enzymes. In particular, mechanistic proposals involving bioorganometallic intermediates are presented, and compared with other mechanistic possibilities. In addition, inhibitors based on substrate analogues as well as developed by rational design and compound-library screening, are discussed. The results presented support bioorganometallic catalytic mechanisms for IspG and IspH, and open up new routes to anti-infective drug design targeting [Fe4 S4 ] clusters in proteins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Weixue Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139 (USA)
| | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Guerra F, Wang K, Li J, Wang W, Liu YL, Amin S, Oldfield E. Inhibition of the 4Fe-4S Proteins IspG and IspH: an EPR, ENDOR and HYSCORE Investigation. Chem Sci 2014; 5:1642-1649. [PMID: 24999381 DOI: 10.1039/c3sc53301h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
IspG and IspH are proteins that are involved in isoprenoid biosynthesis in most bacteria as well as in malaria parasites and are important drug targets. They contain cubane-type 4Fe-4S clusters that are involved in unusual 2H+/2e- reductions. Here, we report the results of electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopic investigations of the binding of amino- and thiolo-HMBPP (HMBPP=E-1-hydroxy-2-methyl-but-2-enyl 4-diphosphate) IspH substrate-analog inhibitors to both proteins, as well as the binding of HMBPP and an acetylene diphosphate inhibitor, to IspG. The results show that amino-HMBPP binds to reduced IspH by Fe-C π-bonding with the olefinic carbons interacting with the unique 4th Fe in the 4Fe-4S cluster, quite different to the direct Fe-N ligation seen with the oxidized protein. No such π-complex is observed when amino-HMBPP binds to reduced IspG. No EPR signal is observed with IspH in the presence of dithionite and thiolo-HMBPP, suggesting that the 4Fe-4S cluster is not reduced, consistent with the presence of a 420 nm feature in the absorption spectrum (characteristic of an oxidized cluster). However, with IspG, the EPR spectrum in the presence of dithionite and thiolo-HMBPP is very similar to that seen with HMBPP. The binding of HMBPP to IspG was studied using hyperfine sublevel correlation spectroscopy with 17O and 13C labeled samples: the results rule out direct Fe-O bonding and indicate π-bonding. Finally, the binding to IspG of a potent acetylene diphosphate inhibitor was studied by using electron-nuclear double resonance spectroscopy with 13C labeled ligands: the large hyperfine couplings indicate strong Fe-C π-bonding with the acetylenic group. These results illustrate a remarkable diversity in binding behavior for HMBPP-analog inhibitors, opening up new routes to inhibitor design of interest in the context of anti-bacterial and anti-malarial drug discovery, as well as "cubane-type" metallo-biochemistry, in general.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Guerra
- Center for Biophysics and Computational Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 607 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Ke Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Jikun Li
- Center for Biophysics and Computational Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 607 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Weixue Wang
- Center for Biophysics and Computational Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 607 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Yi-Liang Liu
- Center for Biophysics and Computational Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 607 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Shivani Amin
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Eric Oldfield
- Center for Biophysics and Computational Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 607 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801 ; Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 600 South Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Utilizing a dynamical description of IspH to aid in the development of novel antimicrobial drugs. PLoS Comput Biol 2013; 9:e1003395. [PMID: 24367248 PMCID: PMC3868525 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1003395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2013] [Accepted: 10/30/2013] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The nonmevalonate pathway is responsible for isoprenoid production in microbes, including H. pylori, M. tuberculosis and P. falciparum, but is nonexistent in humans, thus providing a desirable route for antibacterial and antimalarial drug discovery. We coordinate a structural study of IspH, a [4Fe-4S] protein responsible for converting HMBPP to IPP and DMAPP in the ultimate step in the nonmevalonate pathway. By performing accelerated molecular dynamics simulations on both substrate-free and HMBPP-bound [Fe4S4]2+ IspH, we elucidate how substrate binding alters the dynamics of the protein. Using principal component analysis, we note that while substrate-free IspH samples various open and closed conformations, the closed conformation observed experimentally for HMBPP-bound IspH is inaccessible in the absence of HMBPP. In contrast, simulations with HMBPP bound are restricted from accessing the open states sampled by the substrate-free simulations. Further investigation of the substrate-free simulations reveals large fluctuations in the HMBPP binding pocket, as well as allosteric pocket openings – both of which are achieved through the hinge motions of the individual domains in IspH. Coupling these findings with solvent mapping and various structural analyses reveals alternative druggable sites that may be exploited in future drug design efforts. Drug resistance has recently entered into media conversations through the lens of MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) infections, but conventional therapies are also failing to address resistance in cases of malaria and other bacterial infections, such as tuberculosis. To address these problems, we must develop new antibacterial and antimalarial medications. Our research focuses on understanding the structure and dynamics of IspH, an enzyme whose function is necessary for the survival of most bacteria and malaria-causing protozoans. Using computer simulations, we track how the structure of IspH changes in the presence and absence of its natural substrate. By inspecting the pockets that form in the normal motions of IspH, we propose a couple new routes by which new molecules may be developed to disrupt the function of IspH. It is our hope that these structural studies may be precursors to the development of novel therapies that may add to our current arsenal against bacterial and malarial infections.
Collapse
|
21
|
Zhao L, Chang WC, Xiao Y, Liu HW, Liu P. Methylerythritol phosphate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis. Annu Rev Biochem 2013; 82:497-530. [PMID: 23746261 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-biochem-052010-100934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Isoprenoids are a class of natural products with more than 55,000 members. All isoprenoids are constructed from two precursors, isopentenyl diphosphate and its isomer dimethylallyl diphosphate. Two of the most important discoveries in isoprenoid biosynthetic studies in recent years are the elucidation of a second isoprenoid biosynthetic pathway [the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway] and a modified mevalonic acid (MVA) pathway. In this review, we summarize mechanistic insights on the MEP pathway enzymes. Because many isoprenoids have important biological activities, the need to produce them in sufficient quantities for downstream research efforts or commercial application is apparent. Recent advances in both MVA and MEP pathway-based synthetic biology are also illustrated by reviewing the landmark work of artemisinic acid and taxadien-5α-ol production through microbial fermentations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lishan Zhao
- Amyris, Inc., Emeryville, California 94608, USA.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|