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Mu X, Ma C, Mei X, Liao J, Bojar R, Kuang S, Rong Q, Yao J, Zhang YS. On-demand expansion fluorescence and photoacoustic microscopy (ExFLPAM). PHOTOACOUSTICS 2024; 38:100610. [PMID: 38726025 PMCID: PMC11079527 DOI: 10.1016/j.pacs.2024.100610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
Expansion microscopy (ExM) is a promising technology that enables nanoscale imaging on conventional optical microscopes by physically magnifying the specimens. Here, we report the development of a strategy that enables i) on-demand labeling of subcellular organelles in live cells for ExM through transfection of fluorescent proteins that are well-retained during the expansion procedure; and ii) non-fluorescent chromogenic color-development towards efficient bright-field and photoacoustic imaging in both planar and volumetric formats, which is applicable to both cultured cells and biological tissues. Compared to the conventional ExM methods, our strategy provides an expanded toolkit, which we term as expansion fluorescence and photoacoustic microscopy (ExFLPAM), by allowing on-demand fluorescent protein labeling of cultured cells, as well as non-fluorescent absorption contrast-imaging of biological samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Mu
- Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 65 Landsdowne Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Chenshuo Ma
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Xuan Mei
- Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 65 Landsdowne Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Junlong Liao
- Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 65 Landsdowne Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Rebecca Bojar
- Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 65 Landsdowne Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
- Barnard College, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Sizhe Kuang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Qiangzhou Rong
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Junjie Yao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA
| | - Yu Shrike Zhang
- Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 65 Landsdowne Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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Zhang S, Miao J, Li LS. Challenges and advances in two-dimensional photoacoustic computed tomography: a review. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2024; 29:070901. [PMID: 39006312 PMCID: PMC11245175 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.29.7.070901] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2023] [Revised: 06/18/2024] [Accepted: 06/19/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
Significance Photoacoustic computed tomography (PACT), a hybrid imaging modality combining optical excitation with acoustic detection, has rapidly emerged as a prominent biomedical imaging technique. Aim We review the challenges and advances of PACT, including (1) limited view, (2) anisotropy resolution, (3) spatial aliasing, (4) acoustic heterogeneity (speed of sound mismatch), and (5) fluence correction of spectral unmixing. Approach We performed a comprehensive literature review to summarize the key challenges in PACT toward practical applications and discuss various solutions. Results There is a wide range of contributions from both industry and academic spaces. Various approaches, including emerging deep learning methods, are proposed to improve the performance of PACT further. Conclusions We outline contemporary technologies aimed at tackling the challenges in PACT applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunyao Zhang
- Rice University, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Houston, Texas, United States
| | - Jingyi Miao
- Rice University, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Houston, Texas, United States
| | - Lei S Li
- Rice University, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Houston, Texas, United States
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Vu T, Razansky D, Yao J. Listening to tissues with new light: recent technological advances in photoacoustic imaging. JOURNAL OF OPTICS (2010) 2019; 21:10.1088/2040-8986/ab3b1a. [PMID: 32051756 PMCID: PMC7015182 DOI: 10.1088/2040-8986/ab3b1a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Photoacoustic tomography (PAT), or optoacoustic tomography, has achieved remarkable progress in the past decade, benefiting from the joint developments in optics, acoustics, chemistry, computing and mathematics. Unlike pure optical or ultrasound imaging, PAT can provide unique optical absorption contrast as well as widely scalable spatial resolution, penetration depth and imaging speed. Moreover, PAT has inherent sensitivity to tissue's functional, molecular, and metabolic state. With these merits, PAT has been applied in a wide range of life science disciplines, and has enabled biomedical research unattainable by other imaging methods. This Review article aims at introducing state-of-the-art PAT technologies and their representative applications. The focus is on recent technological breakthroughs in structural, functional, molecular PAT, including super-resolution imaging, real-time small-animal whole-body imaging, and high-sensitivity functional/molecular imaging. We also discuss the remaining challenges in PAT and envisioned opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tri Vu
- Photoacoustic Imaging Lab, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Daniel Razansky
- Faculty of Medicine and Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute for Biomedical Engineering and Department of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Junjie Yao
- Photoacoustic Imaging Lab, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
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Iridium nanocrystals encapsulated liposomes as near-infrared light controllable nanozymes for enhanced cancer radiotherapy. Biomaterials 2018; 181:81-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2018.07.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2018] [Revised: 07/16/2018] [Accepted: 07/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Photoacoustic microscopy: principles and biomedical applications. Biomed Eng Lett 2018; 8:203-213. [PMID: 30603203 DOI: 10.1007/s13534-018-0067-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Photoacoustic microscopy (PAM) has become an increasingly popular technology for biomedical applications, providing anatomical, functional, and molecular information. In this concise review, we first introduce the basic principles and typical system designs of PAM, including optical-resolution PAM and acoustic-resolution PAM. The major imaging characteristics of PAM, i.e. spatial resolutions, penetration depth, and scanning approach are discussed in detail. Then, we introduce the major biomedical applications of PAM, including anatomical imaging across scales from cellular level to organismal level, label-free functional imaging using endogenous biomolecules, and molecular imaging using exogenous contrast agents. Lastly, we discuss the technical and engineering challenges of PAM in the translation to potential clinical impacts.
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Zhang YS, Yao J. Imaging Biomaterial-Tissue Interactions. Trends Biotechnol 2018; 36:403-414. [PMID: 29054313 PMCID: PMC5837919 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2017.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2017] [Revised: 09/17/2017] [Accepted: 09/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Modern biomedical imaging has revolutionized life science by providing anatomical, functional, and molecular information of biological species with high spatial resolution, deep penetration, enhanced temporal responsiveness, and improved chemical specificity. In recent years, these imaging techniques have been increasingly tailored for characterizing biomaterials and probing their interactions with biological tissues. This in turn has spurred substantial advances in engineering material properties to accommodate different imaging modalities that was previously unattainable. Here, we review advances in engineering both imaging modalities and material properties with improved contrast, providing a timely practical guide to better assess biomaterial-tissue interactions both in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Shrike Zhang
- Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
| | - Junjie Yao
- Photoacoustic Imaging Lab, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, USA.
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Shekhawat GS, Dudek SM, Dravid VP. Development of ultrasound bioprobe for biological imaging. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2017; 3:e1701176. [PMID: 29075667 PMCID: PMC5656426 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1701176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 09/22/2017] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
We report the development of an ultrasound bioprobe for in vitro molecular imaging. In this method, the phase of the scattered ultrasound wave is mapped to provide in vitro and intracellular imaging with nanometer-scale resolution under physiological conditions. We demonstrated the technique by successfully imaging a magnetic core in silica core shells and the stiffness image of intracellular fibers in endothelial cells that were stimulated with thrombin. The findings demonstrate a significant advancement in high-resolution ultrasound imaging of biological systems with acoustics under physiological conditions. These will open up various applications in biomedical and molecular imaging with subsurface resolution down to the nanometer scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gajendra S. Shekhawat
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and NUANCE Center, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
- Corresponding author.
| | - Steven M. Dudek
- Department of Medicine, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Vinayak P. Dravid
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and NUANCE Center, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA
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Cha MG, Lee S, Park S, Kang H, Lee SG, Jeong C, Lee YS, Kim C, Jeong DH. A dual modal silver bumpy nanoprobe for photoacoustic imaging and SERS multiplexed identification of in vivo lymph nodes. NANOSCALE 2017; 9:12556-12564. [PMID: 28820223 DOI: 10.1039/c7nr03742b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Multimodal imaging can provide complementary biomedical information which has huge potential in pre-clinical and clinical imaging and sensing. In this study, we introduce dual modal NIR silver bumpy nanoprobes for in vivo imaging and multiplexed detection of biomolecules by both photoacoustic imaging (PAI) and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) techniques. For this study, we used silica-coated silver bumpy nanoshell probes (AgNS@SiO2). AgNS@SiO2 have strong NIR-absorption and scattering properties compared with other nanostructures, and therefore, can be a good candidate for photoacoustic (PA) and SERS multimodal imaging. We obtained PA images of the skin and SLNs of rats by injecting various kinds of Raman-labeled AgNS@SiO2. Multiplexed identification of the injected AgNS@SiO2 was achieved by measuring SERS signals. AgNS@SiO2 have the potential to be applied in detecting cancer biomarkers by locating biomarkers quickly using PA imaging, and identification by multiplexed target measurement using SERS signals in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myeong Geun Cha
- Department of Chemistry Education, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea.
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Li L, Zhu L, Shen Y, Wang LV. Multiview Hilbert transformation in full-ring transducer array-based photoacoustic computed tomography. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2017; 22:76017. [PMID: 28745385 PMCID: PMC5527266 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.22.7.076017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 07/12/2017] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Based on the photoacoustic (PA) effect, PA tomography directly measures specific optical absorption, i.e., absorbed optical energy per unit volume. We recently developed a full-ring ultrasonic transducer array-based photoacoustic computed tomography (PACT) system for small-animal whole-body imaging. The system has a full-view detection angle and high in-plane resolution (∼100 μm). However, due to the bandpass frequency response of the piezoelectric transducer elements and the limited elevational detection coverage of the full-ring transducer array, the reconstructed images present bipolar (i.e., both positive and negative) pixel values, which cause ambiguities in image interpretation for physicians and biologists. We propose a multiview Hilbert transformation method to recover the unipolar initial pressure for full-ring PACT. The effectiveness of the proposed algorithm was first validated by numerical simulations and then demonstrated with ex vivo mouse brain structural imaging and in vivo mouse whole-body imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Li
- Washington University in St. Louis, Department of Electrical and System Engineering, St. Louis, Missouri, United States
- California Institute of Technology, Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Caltech Optical Imaging Laboratory, Pasadena, California, United States
| | - Liren Zhu
- California Institute of Technology, Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Caltech Optical Imaging Laboratory, Pasadena, California, United States
- Washington University in St. Louis, Department of Biomedical Engineering, St. Louis, Missouri, United States
| | - Yuecheng Shen
- California Institute of Technology, Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Caltech Optical Imaging Laboratory, Pasadena, California, United States
| | - Lihong V. Wang
- California Institute of Technology, Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Caltech Optical Imaging Laboratory, Pasadena, California, United States
- California Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering, Caltech Optical Imaging Laboratory, Pasadena, California, United States
- Address all correspondence to: Lihong V. Wang, E-mail:
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Meiburger KM, Nam SY, Chung E, Suggs LJ, Emelianov SY, Molinari F. Skeletonization algorithm-based blood vessel quantification usingin vivo3D photoacoustic imaging. Phys Med Biol 2016; 61:7994-8009. [DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/61/22/7994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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Lee J, Heckl D, Parekkadan B. Multiple genetically engineered humanized microenvironments in a single mouse. Biomater Res 2016; 20:19. [PMID: 27354920 PMCID: PMC4924259 DOI: 10.1186/s40824-016-0066-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Immunodeficient mouse models that accept human cell and tissue grafts can contribute greater knowledge to human stem cell research. In this technical report, we used biomaterial implants seeded with genetically engineered stromal cells to create several unique microenvironments in a single mouse. The scope of study was focused on human CD34 hematopoietic stem/progenitor cell (HSPC) engraftment and differentiation within the engineered microenvironment. Results A mouse model system was created using subdermal implant sites that overexpressed a specific human cytokines (Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A (hVEGFa), Stromal Derived Factor 1 Alpha (hSDF1a), or Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha (hTNFa)) by stromal cells in a three-dimensional biomaterial matrix. The systemic exposure of locally overexpressed cytokines was minimized by controlling the growth of stromal cells, which led to autonomous local, concentrated sites in a single mouse for study. This biomaterial implant approach allowed for the local analysis of each cytokine on hematopoietic stem cell recruitment, engraftment and differentiation in four different tissue microenvironments in the same host. The engineered factors were validated to have bioactive effects on human CD34+ hematopoietic progenitor cell differentiation. Conclusions This model system can serve as a new platform for the study of multiple human proteins and their local effects on hematopoietic cell biology for in vivo validation studies. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40824-016-0066-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jungwoo Lee
- Department of Surgery, Center for Engineering in Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital & Harvard Medical School and Shriners Hospital for Children, Boston, MA USA ; Department of Chemical Engineering, Institute for Applied Life Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA USA
| | - Dirk Heckl
- Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA USA
| | - Biju Parekkadan
- Department of Surgery, Center for Engineering in Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital & Harvard Medical School and Shriners Hospital for Children, Boston, MA USA ; Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Cambridge, MA USA
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Groot Nibbelink M, Daoudi K, Slegers S, Grootendorst D, Dantuma M, Steenbergen W, Karperien M, Manohar S, van Apeldoorn A. Opening the "White Box" in Tissue Engineering: Visualization of Cell Aggregates in Optically Scattering Scaffolds. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 2016; 22:534-42. [PMID: 27056242 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tec.2015.0462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The noninvasive and longitudinal imaging of cells or cell aggregates in large optically scattering scaffolds is still a largely unresolved problem in tissue engineering. In this work, we investigated the potential of near-infrared (NIR) photoacoustic (PA) tomography imaging to address this issue. We used clinically relevant sizes of highly light scattering polyethersulfone multibore(®) hollow fiber scaffolds seeded with cells. Since cells have little optical absorption at NIR wavelengths, we studied labeling of cells with absorbers. Four NIR labels were examined for their suitability based on absorption characteristics, resistance to bleaching, and influence on cell viability. On the basis of these criteria, carbon nanoparticles proved most suitable in a variety of cells. For PA imaging, we used a research setup, based on computed tomography geometry. As proof of principle, using this imager we monitored the distribution and clustering of labeled rat insulinoma beta cell aggregates in the scaffolds. This was performed for the duration of 1 week in a nondestructive manner. The results were validated using fluorescence imaging, histology, and light microscopy imaging. Based on our findings, we conclude that PA tomography is a powerful tool for the nondestructive imaging of cells in optically scattering tissue-engineered scaffolds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milou Groot Nibbelink
- 1 Developmental Bioengineering, MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Khalid Daoudi
- 2 Biomedical Photonic Imaging, MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Sanne Slegers
- 2 Biomedical Photonic Imaging, MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands .,3 Albert Schweitzer Hospital , Dordrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Diederik Grootendorst
- 2 Biomedical Photonic Imaging, MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Maura Dantuma
- 2 Biomedical Photonic Imaging, MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Wiendelt Steenbergen
- 2 Biomedical Photonic Imaging, MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Marcel Karperien
- 1 Developmental Bioengineering, MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Srirang Manohar
- 2 Biomedical Photonic Imaging, MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Aart van Apeldoorn
- 1 Developmental Bioengineering, MIRA Institute of Biomedical Technology and Technical Medicine, University of Twente , Enschede, The Netherlands
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Zhang YS, Wang LV, Xia Y. Seeing Through the Surface: Non-invasive Characterization of Biomaterial-Tissue Interactions Using Photoacoustic Microscopy. Ann Biomed Eng 2016; 44:649-66. [PMID: 26471785 PMCID: PMC4792739 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-015-1485-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 10/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
At the intersection of life sciences, materials science, engineering, and medicine, regenerative medicine stands out as a rapidly progressing field that aims at retaining, restoring, or augmenting tissue/organ functions to promote the human welfare. While the field has witnessed tremendous advancements over the past few decades, it still faces many challenges. For example, it has been difficult to visualize, monitor, and assess the functions of the engineered tissue/organ constructs, particularly when three-dimensional scaffolds are involved. Conventional approaches based on histology are invasive and therefore only convey end-point assays. The development of volumetric imaging techniques such as confocal and ultrasonic imaging has enabled direct observation of intact constructs without the need of sectioning. However, the capability of these techniques is often limited in terms of penetration depth and contrast. In comparison, the recently developed photoacoustic microscopy (PAM) has allowed us to address these issues by integrating optical and ultrasonic imaging to greatly reduce the effect of tissue scattering of photons with one-way ultrasound detection while retaining the high optical absorption contrast. PAM has been successfully applied to a number of studies, such as observation of cell distribution, monitoring of vascularization, and interrogation of biomaterial degradation. In this review article, we highlight recent progress in non-invasive and volumetric characterization of biomaterial-tissue interactions using PAM. We also discuss challenges ahead and envision future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Shrike Zhang
- Department of Medicine, Biomaterials Innovation Research Center, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
- Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Lihong V Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA.
| | - Younan Xia
- The Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology and Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA.
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA.
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