The Synthesis of Structurally Diverse Macrocycles By Successive Ring Expansion

Stereoselective synthesis of atropisomeric amides enabled by intramolecular acyl transfer

C-N atropisomeric amides are important compounds in medicinal chemistry and agrochemistry. Atropselective methods for their synthesis are therefore important. In this study, a novel strategy to make C-N atropisomeric amides based on intramolecular acyl transfer via a tethered Lewis basic pyridine or tertiary amine group is reported. The reactions operate under kinetic control and in most cases are highly atropselective, with the products isolable as pure, single diastereoisomers following chromatography. The kinetically favored atropisomer can also be isomerised into the alternative thermodynamically favored atropisomer upon heating. The kinetic and thermodynamic outcomes are supported by computational studies, while additional mechanistic studies support operation via initial fast acylation of the Lewis basic group, followed by rate-determining acyl transfer, which also enables control over the atropisomer formed.

Cascade ring expansion reactions for the synthesis of medium-sized rings and macrocycles

This Feature Article discusses recent advances in the development of cascade ring expansion reactions for the synthesis of medium-sized rings and macrocycles. Cascade ring expansion reactions have much potential for use in the synthesis of biologically important medium-sized rings and macrocycles, most notably as they don't require high dilution conditions, which are commonly used in established end-to-end macrocyclisation methods. Operation by cascade ring expansion method can allow large ring products to be accessed via rearrangements that proceed exclusively by normal-sized ring cyclisation steps. Ensuring that there is adequate thermodynamic driving force for ring expansion is a key challenge when designing such methods, especially for the expansion of normal-sized rings into medium-sized rings. This Article is predominantly focused on methods developed in our own laboratory, with selected works by other groups also discussed. Thermodynamic considerations, mechanism, reaction design, route planning and future perspective for this field are all covered.

Expanding the scope of the successive ring expansion strategy for macrocycle and medium-sized ring synthesis: unreactive and reactive lactams

New methods are described that expand the scope of the Successive Ring Expansion (SuRE) with respect to synthetically challenging lactams. A protocol has been developed for use with 'unreactive' lactams, enabling SuRE reactions to be performed on subsrates that fail under previously established conditions. Ring expansion is also demonstarted on 'reactive' lactams derived from iminosugars for the first time. The new SuRE methods were used to prepare a diverse array of medium-sized and macrocyclic lactams and lactones, which were evaluted in an anti-bacterial assay against E. coli BW25113WT.

Medium-Sized Ring Expansion Strategies: Enhancing Small-Molecule Library Development

The construction of a small molecule library that includes compounds with medium-sized rings is increasingly essential in drug discovery. These compounds are essential for identifying novel therapeutic agents capable of targeting "undruggable" targets through high-throughput and high-content screening, given their structural complexity and diversity. However, synthesizing medium-sized rings presents notable challenges, particularly with direct cyclization methods, due to issues such as transannular strain and reduced degrees of freedom. This review presents an overview of current strategies in synthesizing medium-sized rings, emphasizing innovative approaches like ring-expansion reactions. It highlights the challenges of synthesis and the potential of these compounds to diversify the chemical space for drug discovery, underscoring the importance of medium-sized rings in developing new bioactive compounds.

A Modular Strategy for the Synthesis of Macrocycles and Medium-Sized Rings via Cyclization/Ring Expansion Cascade Reactions

Macrocycles and medium-sized rings are important in many scientific fields and technologies but are hard to make using current methods, especially on a large scale. Outlined herein is a strategy by which functionalized macrocycles and medium-sized rings can be prepared using cyclization/ring expansion (CRE) cascade reactions, without resorting to high dilution conditions. CRE cascade reactions are designed to operate exclusively via kinetically favorable 5-7-membered ring cyclization steps; this means that the problems typically associated with classical end-to-end macrocyclization reactions are avoided. A modular synthetic approach has been developed to facilitate the simple assembly of the requisite linear precursors, which can then be converted into an extremely broad range of functionalized macrocycles and medium-sized rings using one of nine CRE protocols.

Divergent Cascade Ring-Expansion Reactions of Acryloyl Imides

Macrocyclic and medium-sized ring ketones, lactones and lactams can all be made from common acryloyl imide starting materials through divergent, one-pot cascade ring-expansion reactions. Following either conjugate addition with an amine or nitromethane, or osmium(VIII)-catalysed dihydoxylation, rearrangement through a four-atom ring expansion takes place spontaneously to form the ring expanded products. A second ring expansion can also be performed following a second iteration of imide formation and alkene functionalisation/ring expansion. In the dihydroxylation series, three- or four-atom ring expansion can be performed selectively, depending on whether the reaction is under kinetic or thermodynamic control.

A cheap metal catalyzed ring expansion/cross-coupling cascade: a new route to functionalized medium-sized and macrolactones

An efficient alkoxyl radical-triggered ring expansion/cross-coupling cascade was developed under cheap metal catalysis. Through the metal-catalyzed radical relay strategy, a wide range of medium-sized lactones (9-11 membered) and macrolactones (12, 13, 15, 18, and 19-membered) were constructed in moderate to good yields, along with diverse functional groups including CN, N3, SCN, and X groups installed concurrently. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations revealed that reductive elimination of the cycloalkyl-Cu(iii) species is a more favorable reaction pathway for the cross-coupling step. Based on the results of experiments and DFT, a Cu(i)/Cu(ii)/Cu(iii) catalytic cycle is proposed for this tandem reaction.

Ring Expansion Strategies for the Synthesis of Medium Sized Ring and Macrocyclic Sulfonamides

Two new ring expansion strategies are reported for the synthesis of medium sized ring and macrocyclic sulfonamides. Both methods can be performed without using classical protecting groups, with the key ring expansion step initiated by nitro reduction and amine conjugate addition respectively. Each method can be used to make diversely functionalised cyclic sulfonamides in good to excellent yields, in a range of ring sizes. The ring size dependency of the synthetic reactions is in good agreement with the outcomes modelled by Density Functional Theory calculations.

A Lewis Acid-Promoted Michael Addition and Ring-Expansion Cascade for the Construction of Nitrogen-Containing Medium-Sized Rings

A Lewis acid-promoted annulation of azadienes and cyclobutamines was developed. This reaction proceeded through Michael addition and ring-expansion cascade, affording the corresponding nitrogen-containing medium-sized rings with a broad scope in moderate to high yields. The catalytic asymmetric version of this reaction has also been explored using a chiral base.

Synthesis of medium-ring lactams and macrocyclic peptide mimetics via conjugate addition/ring expansion cascade reactions

A novel conjugate addition/ring expansion (CARE) cascade reaction sequence is reported that enables medium-sized ring and macrocyclic bis-lactams to be prepared from primary amines and cyclic imides. The reactions are simple to perform, generally high yielding, and very broad in scope, especially with respect to the primary amine component. CARE reactions can also be performed iteratively, enabling β-peptoid-based macrocyclic peptide mimetics to be ‘grown’ via well controlled, sequential 4-atom ring expansion reactions, with the incorporation of varied functionalised amines during each iteration.

A conjugate addition/ring expansion (CARE) cascade reaction sequence is reported that enables medium-sized ring and macrocyclic bis-lactams to be prepared from primary amines and cyclic imides.

Formal [4 + 4]-, [4 + 3]-, and [4 + 2]-cycloaddition reactions of donor-acceptor cyclobutenes, cyclopropenes and siloxyalkynes induced by Brønsted acid catalysis

Brønsted acid catalyzed formal [4 + 4]-, [4 + 3]-, and [4 + 2]-cycloadditions of donor-acceptor cyclobutenes, cyclopropenes, and siloxyalkynes with benzopyrylium ions are reported. [4 + 2]-cyclization/deMayo-type ring-extension cascade processes produce highly functionalized benzocyclooctatrienes, benzocycloheptatrienes, and 2-naphthols in good to excellent yields and selectivities. Moreover, the optical purity of reactant donor-acceptor cyclobutenes is fully retained during the cascade. The 1,3-dicarbonyl product framework of the reaction products provides opportunities for salen-type ligand syntheses and the construction of fused pyrazoles and isoxazoles that reveal a novel rotamer-diastereoisomerism.

Synthesis of macrocyclic and medium-sized ring thiolactones via the ring expansion of lactams

A side chain insertion method for the ring expansion of lactams into macrocyclic thiolactones is reported, that can also be incorporated into Successive Ring Expansion (SuRE) sequences. The reactions are less thermodynamically favourable than the analogous lactam- and lactone-forming ring expansion processes (with this notion supported by DFT data), but nonetheless, three complementary protecting group strategies have been developed to enable this challenging transformation to be achieved.

Ru-catalysed C(sp2)-H vinylation/annulation of benzoic acids and alkynes: rapid access to medium-sized lactones

An unprecedented ruthenium catalysed [4+4] annulation of readily available benzoic acids and alkynes is reported for the first time. The carboxylate group acts as both a directing group and an internal nucleophilic reagent to facilitate a C(sp²)-H vinylation/annulation cascade. This reaction avoids the classically oxidative [4+2] annulation, allowing the efficient synthesis of a wide array of eight-membered lactones under oxidant-free conditions. Moreover, this catalytic system can be successfully extended to [4+3] and [4+5] annulations for the assembly of seven- and nine-membered lactones.

Ring Expansion of Thiolactams via Imide Intermediates: An Amino Acid Insertion Strategy

The Ag^I -promoted reaction of thiolactams with N-Boc amino acids yields an N-(α-aminoacyl) lactam that can rearrange through an acyl transfer process. Boc-deprotection results in convergence to the ring-expanded adduct, thereby facilitating an overall insertion of an amino acid into the thioamide bond to generate medium-sized heterocycles. Application to the site-specific insertion of amino acids into cyclic peptides is demonstrated.

Photocatalytic Aerobic Oxidative Ring Expansion of Cyclic Ketones to Macrolactones by Cerium and Cyanoanthracene Catalysis

We describe a cerium-catalyzed aerobic oxidative ring expansion for the expedient construction of synthetically challenging macrolactones under visible-light conditions. Cyanoanthracene has been employed as co-catalyst to accelerate the turnover of the cerium cycle leading to a fast conversion within 20 min of irradiation. Taking advantage of the high efficiency and operationally simple conditions, a collection of over 100 macrolactones equipped with ring systems ranging from 9- to 19-membered macrocycles have been prepared from simple building blocks. Moreover, the enabling potential of this strategy to simplify the generation of molecular complexity has been demonstrated through the concise synthesis of sonnerlactone.

Total Synthesis of Marine Alkaloids Motuporamines A and B via Ring Expansion of Cyclic β-Keto Esters

An expedient total synthesis of the title marine sponge alkaloids has been developed. The salient features of the synthesis are as follows: (i) preparation of the required 13- and 14-membered cyclic lactams with n + 4 ring-expansion strategy of cyclic β-keto esters and (ii) functional group manipulation of the resulted keto ester lactams. This approach used easily accessible and inexpensive materials/reagents, thus providing a promising alternative to the existing preparations.

Recent advances in catalytic synthesis of medium-ring lactones and their derivatives

In light of the ever-increasing significance of medium-sized lactones across the range of chemical sciences, this review summarizes the recent advances in catalytic synthesis of medium-ring lactones with emphasis on reaction scope and mechanism.

Evaluating the Viability of Successive Ring-Expansions Based on Amino Acid and Hydroxyacid Side-Chain Insertion

The outcome of ring-expansion reactions based on amino/hydroxyacid side-chain insertion is strongly dependent on ring size. This manuscript, which builds upon our previous work on Successive Ring Expansion (SuRE) methods, details efforts to better define the scope and limitations of these reactions on lactam and β-ketoester ring systems with respect to ring size and additional functionality. The synthetic results provide clear guidelines as to which substrate classes are more likely to be successful and are supported by computational results, using a density functional theory (DFT) approach. Calculating the relative Gibbs free energies of the three isomeric species that are formed reversibly during ring expansion enables the viability of new synthetic reactions to be correctly predicted in most cases. The new synthetic and computational results are expected to support the design of new lactam- and β-ketoester-based ring-expansion reactions.

A happy medium: the synthesis of medicinally important medium-sized rings via ring expansion

Medium-sized rings have much promise in medicinal chemistry, but are difficult to make using direct cyclisation methods. In this minireview, we highlight the value of ring expansion strategies to address this long-standing synthetic challenge. We have drawn on recent progress (post 2013) to highlight the key reaction design features that enable successful ‘normal-to-medium’ ring expansion for the synthesis of these medicinally important molecular frameworks, that are currently under-represented in compound screening collections and marketed drugs in view of their challenging syntheses.

Ring expansion strategies are ideally suited to make synthetically challenging, medium-sized rings with much potential in medicinal chemistry.

Synthesis of Benzo[b]azocin-2-ones by Aryl Amination and Ring-Expansion of α-(Iodophenyl)-β-oxoesters

Transformation of β-oxoesters with PhI(OCOCF3 )2 leads to α-(ortho-iodophenyl)-β-oxoesters. These materials are the starting point for the synthesis of 6-carboxybenzo[b]azocin-2-ones by a sequence of aryl amination and ring transformation. This reaction sequence starts with copper-catalyzed formation of N-alkyl anilines from the iodoarenes and primary amines in the presence of K3 PO4 as stoichiometric base. The intermediate products underwent ring transformation by addition of the nitrogen into the carbonyl group of the cycloalkanone, furnishing benzo-annulated eight-membered ring lactams. Under the same reaction conditions, the cyclohexanone and cycloheptanone derivatives gave no aminated products, but ring-transformed to benzofuran derivatives. The title compounds of this investigation contain two points for further diversification (the lactam nitrogen and the carboxylate function), thus, the suitability of this compound class as a scaffold was proven by appropriate functionalizations. The first series of derivatizations of the scaffold was initiated by hydrogenolytic debenzylation of N-benzyl derivative to provide the NH-congener, which could be deprotonated with LDA and alkylated at nitrogen to give further examples of this compound class. Secondly, the ester function was submitted to saponification and the resulting carboxylic acid could be amidated using HATU as coupling reagent to furnish different amides.

Alternating Sequence Control for Poly(ester amide)s by Organocatalyzed Ring-Opening Polymerization

Sequence-controlled polymerization is the forefront of polymer chemistry. Herein, the feasibility of sequence regulation by using organocatalyzed ring-opening polymerization (ROP) is demonstrated. In particular, ring expansion strategy is employed to synthesize pre-organized monomers 1 and 2. ROP is conducted by using 1,5,7-triazabicyclo[4.4.0]dec-5-ene and benzyl alcohol as the catalyst and initiator, respectively. Poly(ester amide)s (PEAs) P1-P3 comprising glycolic acid, lactic acid, and 7-aminoheptanoic acid units are obtained in high molecular weights and good yields. NMR and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry results verify the microstructural integrity of P1 and P2. Differential scanning calorimetry results show that PEA without methyl branches is crystalline. Moreover, thermal stability, surface wettability, and degradation profiles of P1-P3 are also investigated.

A general strategy for diversifying complex natural products to polycyclic scaffolds with medium-sized rings

The interrogation of complex biological pathways demands diverse small molecule tool compounds, which can often lead to important therapeutics for the treatment of human diseases. Since natural products are the most valuable source for the discovery of therapeutics, the derivatization of natural products has been extensively investigated to generate molecules for biological screenings. However, most previous approaches only modified a limited number of functional groups, which resulted in a limited number of skeleta. Here we show a general strategy for the preparation of a library of complex small molecules by combining state-of-the-art chemistry – the site-selective oxidation of C-H bonds - with reactions that expand rigid, small rings in polycyclic steroids to medium-sized rings. This library occupies a unique chemical space compared to selected diverse reference compounds. The diversification strategy developed herein for steroids can also be expanded to other types of natural products.

Derivatization of natural products is a powerful approach to generate new molecules for biological screenings. Here, the authors employ C-H oxidation and ring expansion methods for the preparation of a library of medium-sized ring skeleta, which occupy a unique chemical space based on chemoinformatic analysis.

Enantioselective Organocatalytic Four-Atom Ring Expansion of Cyclobutanones: Synthesis of Benzazocinones

An enantioselective Michael addition- four-atom ring expansion cascade reaction involving cyclobutanones activated by a N-aryl secondary amide group and ortho-amino nitrostyrenes has been developed for the preparation of functionalized eight-membered benzolactams using bifunctional aminocatalysts. Taking advantage of the secondary amide activating group, the eight-membered cyclic products could be further rearranged into their six-membered isomers having a glutarimide core under base catalysis conditions without erosion of optical purity, featuring an overall ring expansion- ring contraction strategy.

A Brief Overview of Two Major Strategies in Diversity-Oriented Synthesis: Build/Couple/Pair and Ring-Distortion

In the interdisciplinary research field of chemical biology and drug discovery, diversity-oriented synthesis (DOS) has become indispensable in the construction of novel small-molecule libraries rich in skeletal and stereochemical diversity. DOS aims to populate the unexplored chemical space with new potential bioactive molecules via forward synthetic analysis. Since the introduction of this concept by Schreiber, DOS has evolved along with many significant breakthroughs. It is therefore important to understand the key DOS strategies to build molecular diversity with maximized biological relevancy. Due to the length limitations of this mini review, we briefly discuss the recent DOS plans using build/couple/pair (B/C/P) and ring-distortion strategies for the synthesis of major biologically relevant target molecules like natural products and their related compounds, macrocycles, and privileged structures.

Direct Photocatalytic Synthesis of Medium-Sized Lactams by C-C Bond Cleavage

Reported is a novel two-step ring-expansion strategy for expeditious synthesis of all ring sizes of synthetically challenging (hetero)aryl-fused medium-sized lactams from readily available 5-8-membered cyclic ketones. This step-economic approach features a remote radical (hetero)aryl migration from C to N under visible-light conditions. Broad substrate scope, good functional-group tolerance, high efficiency, and mild reaction conditions make this procedure very attractive. In addition, this method also provides expedient access to 13-15-membered macrolactams upon an additional one-step manipulation. Mechanistic studies indicate that the reaction involves an amidyl radical and is promoted by acid.

Iterative Assembly of Macrocyclic Lactones using Successive Ring Expansion Reactions

Macrocyclic lactones can be prepared from lactams and hydroxyacid derivatives via an efficient 3- or 4-atom iterative ring expansion protocol. The products can also be expanded using amino acid-based linear fragments, meaning that macrocycles with precise sequences of hydroxy- and amino acids can be assembled in high yields by "growing" them from smaller rings, using a simple procedure in which high dilution is not required. The method should significantly expedite the practical synthesis of diverse nitrogen containing macrolide frameworks.

Rare Medium-Sized Rings Prepared via Hydrolytic Imidazoline Ring Expansion (HIRE)

The hydrolytic imidazoline ring expansion (HIRE) methodology was extended to readily available tetracyclic [1,4]thiazepines as well as sulfoxide and sulfone analogs thereof. The reactions resulted in the facile formation of a rare medium-sized [1,4,7]thiazecine ring system that has an emerging utility in bioactive compound design. Comparing the HIRE rates for representative compounds in the three groups of substrates allowed drawing some generalizations about the substituent effects on the course of the reaction.

Synthesis of Benzannulated Medium-ring Lactams via a Tandem Oxidative Dearomatization-Ring Expansion Reaction

Medium-ring natural products exhibit diverse biological activities but such scaffolds are underrepresented in probe and drug discovery efforts due to the limitations of classical macrocyclization reactions. We report herein a tandem oxidative dearomatization-ring-expanding rearomatization (ODRE) reaction that generates benzannulated medium-ring lactams directly from simple bicyclic substrates. The reaction accommodates diverse aryl substrates (haloarenes, aryl ethers, aryl amides, heterocycles) and strategic incorporation of a bridgehead alcohol generates a versatile ketone moiety in the products amenable to downstream modifications. Cheminformatic analysis indicates that these medium rings access regions of chemical space that overlap with related natural products and are distinct from synthetic drugs, setting the stage for their use in discovery screening against novel biological targets.

Understanding and designing head-to-tail cyclic peptides

Cyclic peptides (CPs) are an exciting class of molecules with a variety of applications. However, design strategies for CP therapeutics, for example, are generally limited by a poor understanding of their sequence-structure relationships. This knowledge gap often leads to a trial-and-error approach for designing CPs for a specific purpose, which is both costly and time-consuming. Herein, we describe the current experimental and computational efforts in understanding and designing head-to-tail CPs along with their respective challenges. In addition, we provide several future directions in the field of computational CP design to improve its accuracy, efficiency and applicability. These advances, combined with experimental techniques, shall ultimately provide a better understanding of these interesting molecules and a reliable working platform to rationally design CPs with desired characteristics.

Organic dye-catalyzed radical ring expansion reaction

Herein, we reported an attractive method for synthesizing medium-sized rings that are catalyzed by erythrosine B under fluorescent light irradiation. This synthetic approach featured mild conditions, a facile procedure, a broad substrate scope, and moderate-to-good yields.

Herein, we reported an attractive method for synthesizing medium-sized rings that are catalyzed by erythrosine B under fluorescent light irradiation.

Domino Ring Expansion: Regioselective Access to 9-Membered Lactones with a Fused Indole Unit from 2-Nitrophenyl-1,3-cyclohexanediones

The domino anionic fragmentation of 2-nitrophenyl-1,3-cyclohexanediones containing an electrophilic appendage such as aldehyde and epoxide is disclosed. This reaction, initiated by a series of nucleophiles, involves the generation of an intermediate hydroxylate followed by the regioselective formation and fragmentation of an intermediate lactolate into enolate. This strategy, devoid of any protecting group, enlarges the initial ring and provides an original access to decorated 9-membered lactones with a fused indole unit.

Cooperation of copper and dioxygen for the site-selective construction of benzo[1,5]diazocin-6(5H)-ones from indoles and enaminone analogues

A new route for the preparation of benzo[1,5]diazocines from indoles and enaminone analogues is described.