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Kaya P, Schaffner-Reckinger E, Manoharan GB, Vukic V, Kiriazis A, Ledda M, Burgos Renedo M, Pavic K, Gaigneaux A, Glaab E, Abankwa DK. An Improved PDE6D Inhibitor Combines with Sildenafil To Inhibit KRAS Mutant Cancer Cell Growth. J Med Chem 2024; 67:8569-8584. [PMID: 38758695 PMCID: PMC11181323 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c02129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Revised: 04/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024]
Abstract
The trafficking chaperone PDE6D (or PDEδ) was proposed as a surrogate target for K-Ras, leading to the development of a series of inhibitors that block its prenyl binding pocket. These inhibitors suffered from low solubility and suspected off-target effects, preventing their clinical development. Here, we developed a highly soluble, low nanomolar PDE6D inhibitor (PDE6Di), Deltaflexin3, which has the lowest off-target activity as compared to three prominent reference compounds. Deltaflexin3 reduces Ras signaling and selectively decreases the growth of KRAS mutant and PDE6D-dependent cancer cells. We further show that PKG2-mediated phosphorylation of Ser181 lowers K-Ras binding to PDE6D. Thus, Deltaflexin3 combines with the approved PKG2 activator Sildenafil to more potently inhibit PDE6D/K-Ras binding, cancer cell proliferation, and microtumor growth. As observed previously, inhibition of Ras trafficking, signaling, and cancer cell proliferation remained overall modest. Our results suggest reevaluating PDE6D as a K-Ras surrogate target in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pelin Kaya
- Cancer
Cell Biology and Drug Discovery Group, Department of Life Sciences
and Medicine, University of Luxembourg, 4365 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Elisabeth Schaffner-Reckinger
- Cancer
Cell Biology and Drug Discovery Group, Department of Life Sciences
and Medicine, University of Luxembourg, 4365 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Ganesh babu Manoharan
- Cancer
Cell Biology and Drug Discovery Group, Department of Life Sciences
and Medicine, University of Luxembourg, 4365 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Vladimir Vukic
- Faculty
of Technology, University of Novi Sad, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Alexandros Kiriazis
- Turku
Bioscience Centre, University of Turku and
Åbo Akademi University, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Mirko Ledda
- Luxembourg
Center for Systems Biomedicine, University
of Luxembourg, 4365 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Maria Burgos Renedo
- Cancer
Cell Biology and Drug Discovery Group, Department of Life Sciences
and Medicine, University of Luxembourg, 4365 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Karolina Pavic
- Cancer
Cell Biology and Drug Discovery Group, Department of Life Sciences
and Medicine, University of Luxembourg, 4365 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Anthoula Gaigneaux
- Bioinformatics
Core, Department of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Luxembourg, 4365 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Enrico Glaab
- Luxembourg
Center for Systems Biomedicine, University
of Luxembourg, 4365 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Daniel Kwaku Abankwa
- Cancer
Cell Biology and Drug Discovery Group, Department of Life Sciences
and Medicine, University of Luxembourg, 4365 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
- Turku
Bioscience Centre, University of Turku and
Åbo Akademi University, 20520 Turku, Finland
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2
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Majrashi TA, Sabt A, Almahli H, El Hassab MA, Noamaan MA, Elkaeed EB, Hamissa MF, Maslamani AN, Shaldam MA, Eldehna WM. DFT and molecular simulation validation of the binding activity of PDEδ inhibitors for repression of oncogenic k-Ras. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0300035. [PMID: 38457483 PMCID: PMC10923412 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0300035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/10/2024] Open
Abstract
The development of effective drugs targeting the K-Ras oncogene product is a significant focus in anticancer drug development. Despite the lack of successful Ras signaling inhibitors, recent research has identified PDEδ, a KRAS transporter, as a potential target for inhibiting the oncogenic KRAS signaling pathway. This study aims to investigate the interactions between eight K-Ras inhibitors (deltarazine, deltaflexin 1 and 2, and its analogues) and PDEδ to understand their binding modes. The research will utilize computational techniques such as density functional theory (DFT) and molecular electrostatic surface potential (MESP), molecular docking, binding site analyses, molecular dynamic (MD) simulations, electronic structure computations, and predictions of the binding free energy. Molecular dynamic simulations (MD) will be used to predict the binding conformations and pharmacophoric features in the active site of PDEδ for the examined structures. The binding free energies determined using the MMPB(GB)SA method will be compared with the observed potency values of the tested compounds. This computational approach aims to enhance understanding of the PDEδ selective mechanism, which could contribute to the development of novel selective inhibitors for K-Ras signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taghreed A. Majrashi
- Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Khalid University, Asir, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed Sabt
- Chemistry of Natural Compounds Department, Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Institute, National Research Centre, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Hadia Almahli
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Mahmoud A. El Hassab
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Medicinal Chemistry, King Salman International University (KSIU), South Sinai, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud A. Noamaan
- Faculty of Science, Mathematics Department, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
| | - Eslam B. Elkaeed
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, AlMaarefa University, Ad Diriyah, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohamed Farouk Hamissa
- Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry Department, Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Division, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, Egypt
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
| | | | - Moataz A. Shaldam
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh, Egypt
| | - Wagdy M. Eldehna
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh, Egypt
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3
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Lu X, Jin J, Wu Y, Liu X, Liang X, Lin J, Sun Q, Qin J, Zhang W, Luan X. Progress in RAS-targeted therapeutic strategies: From small molecule inhibitors to proteolysis targeting chimeras. Med Res Rev 2024; 44:812-832. [PMID: 38009264 DOI: 10.1002/med.21993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2022] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/29/2023] [Indexed: 11/28/2023]
Abstract
As a widely considerable target in chemical biology and pharmacological research, rat sarcoma (RAS) gene mutations play a critical driving factor in several fatal cancers. Despite the great progress of RAS subtype-specific inhibitors, rapid acquired drug resistance could limit their further clinical applications. Proteolysis targeting chimera (PROTAC) has emerged as a powerful tool to handle "undruggable" targets and exhibited significant therapeutic benefit for the combat of drug resistance. Owing to unique molecular mechanism and binding kinetics, PROTAC is expected to become a feasible strategy to break the bottleneck of classical RAS inhibitors. This review aims to discuss the current advances of RAS inhibitors and especially focus on PROTAC strategy targeting RAS mutations and their downstream effectors for relevant cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinchen Lu
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Center for Chinese Medicine Chemical Biology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- State Key Laboratory of New Drug and Pharmaceutical Process, Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, China State Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, Shanghai, China
| | - Jinmei Jin
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Center for Chinese Medicine Chemical Biology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ye Wu
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Center for Chinese Medicine Chemical Biology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaoxia Liu
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Center for Chinese Medicine Chemical Biology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaohui Liang
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Center for Chinese Medicine Chemical Biology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiayi Lin
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Center for Chinese Medicine Chemical Biology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Qingyan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of New Drug and Pharmaceutical Process, Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, China State Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiangjiang Qin
- The Cancer Hospital of the University of Chinese Academy of Sciences (Zhejiang Cancer Hospital), Institute of Basic Medicine and Cancer (IBMC), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Weidong Zhang
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Center for Chinese Medicine Chemical Biology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
- State Key Laboratory of New Drug and Pharmaceutical Process, Shanghai Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, China State Institute of Pharmaceutical Industry, Shanghai, China
| | - Xin Luan
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Center for Chinese Medicine Chemical Biology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
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4
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Bao J, Chen Z, Li Y, Chen L, Wang W, Sheng C, Dong G. Discovery of Novel PDEδ Autophagic Degraders: A Case Study of Autophagy-Tethering Compound (ATTEC). ACS Med Chem Lett 2024; 15:29-35. [PMID: 38229750 PMCID: PMC10788939 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.3c00161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Revised: 12/23/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2024] Open
Abstract
The autophagy-tethering compound (ATTEC) technology has emerged as a promising strategy for targeted protein degradation (TPD). Here, we report the discovery of the first generation of PDEδ autophagic degraders using an ATTEC approach. The most promising compound 12c exhibited potent PDEδ binding affinity and efficiently induced PDEδ degradation in a concentration-dependent manner. Mechanistic studies confirmed that compound 12c reduced the PDEδ protein level through lysosome-mediated autophagy without affecting the PDEδ mRNA expression. Importantly, compound 12c was much more effective in suppressing the growth in KRAS mutant pancreatic cancer cells than the corresponding PDEδ inhibitor. Taken together, this study expands the application scope of the ATTEC approach and highlights the effectiveness of the PDEδ autophagic degradation strategy in antitumor drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingying Bao
- School
of Pharmacy, East China University of Science
and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
- School
of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Zhenqian Chen
- School
of Pharmacy, East China University of Science
and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
- School
of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Yu Li
- School
of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Long Chen
- School
of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Wei Wang
- School
of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Chunquan Sheng
- School
of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Guoqiang Dong
- School
of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, China
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5
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Xue G, Xie J, Hinterndorfer M, Cigler M, Dötsch L, Imrichova H, Lampe P, Cheng X, Adariani SR, Winter GE, Waldmann H. Discovery of a Drug-like, Natural Product-Inspired DCAF11 Ligand Chemotype. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7908. [PMID: 38036533 PMCID: PMC10689823 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43657-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Targeted proteasomal and autophagic protein degradation, often employing bifunctional modalities, is a new paradigm for modulation of protein function. In an attempt to explore protein degradation by means of autophagy we combine arylidene-indolinones reported to bind the autophagy-related LC3B-protein and ligands of the PDEδ lipoprotein chaperone, the BRD2/3/4-bromodomain containing proteins and the BTK- and BLK kinases. Unexpectedly, the resulting bifunctional degraders do not induce protein degradation by means of macroautophagy, but instead direct their targets to the ubiquitin-proteasome system. Target and mechanism identification reveal that the arylidene-indolinones covalently bind DCAF11, a substrate receptor in the CUL4A/B-RBX1-DDB1-DCAF11 E3 ligase. The tempered α, β-unsaturated indolinone electrophiles define a drug-like DCAF11-ligand class that enables exploration of this E3 ligase in chemical biology and medicinal chemistry programs. The arylidene-indolinone scaffold frequently occurs in natural products which raises the question whether E3 ligand classes can be found more widely among natural products and related compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Xue
- Department of Chemical Biology, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Jianing Xie
- Department of Chemical Biology, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Matthias Hinterndorfer
- CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marko Cigler
- CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Lara Dötsch
- Department of Chemical Biology, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany
- Technical University Dortmund, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Hana Imrichova
- CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Philipp Lampe
- Department of Chemical Biology, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Xiufen Cheng
- Department of Chemical Biology, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Soheila Rezaei Adariani
- Department of Chemical Biology, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Georg E Winter
- CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Herbert Waldmann
- Department of Chemical Biology, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany.
- Technical University Dortmund, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Dortmund, Germany.
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6
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Bteich F, Mohammadi M, Li T, Bhat MA, Sofianidi A, Wei N, Kuang C. Targeting KRAS in Colorectal Cancer: A Bench to Bedside Review. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:12030. [PMID: 37569406 PMCID: PMC10418782 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241512030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/23/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a heterogeneous disease with a myriad of alterations at the cellular and molecular levels. Kristen rat sarcoma (KRAS) mutations occur in up to 40% of CRCs and serve as both a prognostic and predictive biomarker. Oncogenic mutations in the KRAS protein affect cellular proliferation and survival, leading to tumorigenesis through RAS/MAPK pathways. Until recently, only indirect targeting of the pathway had been investigated. There are now several KRAS allele-specific inhibitors in late-phase clinical trials, and many newer agents and targeting strategies undergoing preclinical and early-phase clinical testing. The adequate treatment of KRAS-mutated CRC will inevitably involve combination therapies due to the existence of robust adaptive resistance mechanisms in these tumors. In this article, we review the most recent understanding and findings related to targeting KRAS mutations in CRC, mechanisms of resistance to KRAS inhibitors, as well as evolving treatment strategies for KRAS-mutated CRC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernand Bteich
- Department of Medical Oncology, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY 10467, USA;
- Department of Medical Oncology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; (M.M.); (T.L.); (M.A.B.); (N.W.)
| | - Mahshid Mohammadi
- Department of Medical Oncology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; (M.M.); (T.L.); (M.A.B.); (N.W.)
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Terence Li
- Department of Medical Oncology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; (M.M.); (T.L.); (M.A.B.); (N.W.)
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Muzaffer Ahmed Bhat
- Department of Medical Oncology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; (M.M.); (T.L.); (M.A.B.); (N.W.)
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Amalia Sofianidi
- Oncology Unit, Third Department of Internal Medicine, Sotiria General Hospital for Chest Diseases, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece;
| | - Ning Wei
- Department of Medical Oncology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; (M.M.); (T.L.); (M.A.B.); (N.W.)
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Chaoyuan Kuang
- Department of Medical Oncology, Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, NY 10467, USA;
- Department of Medical Oncology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA; (M.M.); (T.L.); (M.A.B.); (N.W.)
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
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Yin G, Huang J, Petela J, Jiang H, Zhang Y, Gong S, Wu J, Liu B, Shi J, Gao Y. Targeting small GTPases: emerging grasps on previously untamable targets, pioneered by KRAS. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2023; 8:212. [PMID: 37221195 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-023-01441-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Small GTPases including Ras, Rho, Rab, Arf, and Ran are omnipresent molecular switches in regulating key cellular functions. Their dysregulation is a therapeutic target for tumors, neurodegeneration, cardiomyopathies, and infection. However, small GTPases have been historically recognized as "undruggable". Targeting KRAS, one of the most frequently mutated oncogenes, has only come into reality in the last decade due to the development of breakthrough strategies such as fragment-based screening, covalent ligands, macromolecule inhibitors, and PROTACs. Two KRASG12C covalent inhibitors have obtained accelerated approval for treating KRASG12C mutant lung cancer, and allele-specific hotspot mutations on G12D/S/R have been demonstrated as viable targets. New methods of targeting KRAS are quickly evolving, including transcription, immunogenic neoepitopes, and combinatory targeting with immunotherapy. Nevertheless, the vast majority of small GTPases and hotspot mutations remain elusive, and clinical resistance to G12C inhibitors poses new challenges. In this article, we summarize diversified biological functions, shared structural properties, and complex regulatory mechanisms of small GTPases and their relationships with human diseases. Furthermore, we review the status of drug discovery for targeting small GTPases and the most recent strategic progress focused on targeting KRAS. The discovery of new regulatory mechanisms and development of targeting approaches will together promote drug discovery for small GTPases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guowei Yin
- The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, 518107, China.
| | - Jing Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Diagnosis and Therapy, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Johnny Petela
- Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC, 27101, USA
| | - Hongmei Jiang
- The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, 518107, China
| | - Yuetong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Diagnosis and Therapy, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Siqi Gong
- The Seventh Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, 518107, China
- School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, 518107, China
| | - Jiaxin Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Diagnosis and Therapy, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, 510060, China
| | - Bei Liu
- National Biomedical Imaging Center, School of Future Technology, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Jianyou Shi
- Department of Pharmacy, Personalized Drug Therapy Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Academy of Medical Sciences & Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology, Chengdu, 610072, China.
| | - Yijun Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Oncology in South China, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Diagnosis and Therapy, Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center, Guangzhou, 510060, China.
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Harwood SJ, Smith CR, Lawson JD, Ketcham JM. Selected Approaches to Disrupting Protein-Protein Interactions within the MAPK/RAS Pathway. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24087373. [PMID: 37108538 PMCID: PMC10139024 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24087373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2023] [Revised: 04/11/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Within the MAPK/RAS pathway, there exists a plethora of protein-protein interactions (PPIs). For many years, scientists have focused efforts on drugging KRAS and its effectors in hopes to provide much needed therapies for patients with KRAS-mutant driven cancers. In this review, we focus on recent strategies to inhibit RAS-signaling via disrupting PPIs associated with SOS1, RAF, PDEδ, Grb2, and RAS.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - J David Lawson
- Mirati Therapeutics, 3545 Cray Court, San Diego, CA 92121, USA
| | - John M Ketcham
- Mirati Therapeutics, 3545 Cray Court, San Diego, CA 92121, USA
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Lam KK, Wong SH, Cheah PY. Targeting the 'Undruggable' Driver Protein, KRAS, in Epithelial Cancers: Current Perspective. Cells 2023; 12:cells12040631. [PMID: 36831298 PMCID: PMC9954350 DOI: 10.3390/cells12040631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 01/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/10/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
This review summarizes recent development in synthetic drugs and biologics targeting intracellular driver genes in epithelial cancers, focusing on KRAS, and provides a current perspective and potential leads for the field. Compared to biologics, small molecule inhibitors (SMIs) readily penetrate cells, thus being able to target intracellular proteins. However, SMIs frequently suffer from pleiotropic effects, off-target cytotoxicity and invariably elicit resistance. In contrast, biologics are much larger molecules limited by cellular entry, but if this is surmounted, they may have more specific effects and less therapy-induced resistance. Exciting breakthroughs in the past two years include engineering of non-covalent KRAS G12D-specific inhibitor, probody bispecific antibodies, drug-peptide conjugate as MHC-restricted neoantigen to prompt immune response by T-cells, and success in the adoptive cell therapy front in both breast and pancreatic cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuen Kuen Lam
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Singapore General Hospital, Singapore 169856, Singapore
| | | | - Peh Yean Cheah
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Singapore General Hospital, Singapore 169856, Singapore
- Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117549, Singapore
- Duke-NUS Medical School, National University of Singapore, Singapore 169857, Singapore
- Correspondence:
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10
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Li K, Wu S, Dong G, Li Y, Wang W, Dong G, Hong Z, Li M, Sheng C. Environmentally sensitive fluorescent probes with improved properties for detecting and imaging PDEδ in live cells and tumor slices. CHINESE CHEM LETT 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
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11
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Mouhcine M, Kadil Y, Rahmoune I, Filali H. Exploration of Novel PDEδ Inhibitor Based on Pharmacophore and Molecular Docking against KRAS Mutant in Colorectal Cancer. Curr Drug Discov Technol 2023; 20:e160423215830. [PMID: 37066770 DOI: 10.2174/1570163820666230416152843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/18/2023]
Abstract
AIM The prenyl-binding protein, phosphodiesterase-δ (PDEδ), is essential for the localization of prenylated KRas to the plasma membrane for its signaling in cancer. INTRODUCTION The general objective of this work was to develop virtually new potential inhibitors of the PDEδ protein that prevent Ras enrichment at the plasma membrane. METHODS All computational molecular modeling studies were performed by Molecular Operating Environment (MOE). In this study, sixteen crystal structures of PDEδ in complex with fifteen different fragment inhibitors were used in the protein-ligand interaction fingerprints (PLIF) study to identify the chemical features responsible for the inhibition of the PDEδ protein. Based on these chemical characteristics, a pharmacophore with representative characteristics was obtained for screening the BindingDB database. Compounds that matched the pharmacophore model were filtered by the Lipinski filter. The ADMET properties of the compounds that passed the Lipinski filter were predicted by the Swiss ADME webserver and by the ProTox-II-Prediction of Toxicity of Chemicals web server. The selected compounds were subjected to a molecular docking study. RESULTS In the PLIF study, it was shown that the fifteen inhibitors formed interactions with residues Met20, Trp32, Ile53, Cys56, Lys57, Arg61, Gln78, Val80, Glu88, Ile109, Ala11, Met117, Met118, Ile129, Thr131, and Tyr149 of the prenyl-binding pocket of PDEδ. Based on these chemical features, a pharmacophore with representative characteristics was composed of three bond acceptors, two hydrophobic elements, and one hydrogen bond donor. When the pharmacophore model was used in the virtual screening of the Binding DB database, 2532 compounds were selected. Then, the 2532 compounds were screened by the Lipinski rule filter. Among the 2532 compounds, two compounds met the Lipinski's rule. Subsequently, a comparison of the ADMET properties and the drug properties of the two compounds was performed. Finally, compound 2 was selected for molecular docking analysis and as a potential inhibitor against PDEδ. CONCLUSION The hit found by the combination of structure-based pharmacophore generation, pharmacophore- based virtual screening, and molecular docking showed interaction with key amino acids in the hydrophobic pocket of PDEδ, leading to the discovery of a novel scaffold as a potential inhibitor of PDEδ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Mouhcine
- Laboratory of Pharmacology-Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Youness Kadil
- Laboratory of Pharmacology-Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Imane Rahmoune
- Laboratory of Pharmacology-Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Casablanca, Morocco
| | - Houda Filali
- Laboratory of Pharmacology-Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca, Hassan II University of Casablanca, Casablanca, Morocco
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12
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Lee J, Lee HJ, Lee Y, Lim B, Gam J, Oh DC, Lee J. Development of PD3 and PD3-B for PDEδ inhibition to modulate KRAS activity. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2022; 37:1656-1666. [PMID: 35695156 PMCID: PMC9225715 DOI: 10.1080/14756366.2022.2086865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite extensive efforts over 40 years, few effective KRAS inhibitors have been developed to date, mainly due to the undruggable features of KRAS proteins. In addition to the direct approach to KRAS via covalent inhibition, modulation of the prenyl-binding protein PDEδ that binds with farnesylated KRAS has emerged as an alternative strategy to abrogate KRAS activity. For the verification of new therapeutic strategies, chemical probes with the dual functions of visualisation and pharmacological inhibition against oncogenic proteins are enormously valuable to understand cellular events related to cancer. Here, we report indolizino[3,2-c]quinoline (IQ)-based fluorescent probes (PD3 and PD3-B) for PDEδ inhibition. By using the unique fluorescent characteristics of the IQ scaffold, a fluorescence polarisation (FP)-based binding assay identified PD3 as the most effective PDEδ probe among the tested PD analogues, with a low Kd value of 0.491 µM and long retention time in the binding site of PDEδ. In particular, a FP-based competition assay using deltarasin verified that PD3 occupies the farnesylation binding site of PDEδ, excluding the possibility that the FP signals resulted from non-specific hydrophobic interactions between the ligand and protein in the assay. We also designed and synthesised PD3-B (5), an affinity-based probe (ABP) from the PD3 structure, which enabled us to pull down PDEδ from bacterial lysates containing a large number of intrinsic bacterial proteins. Finally, KRAS relocalization was verified in PANC-1 cells by treatment with PD3, suggesting its potential as an effective probe to target PDEδ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jungeun Lee
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ho Jin Lee
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Yeongcheol Lee
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Bumhee Lim
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jongsik Gam
- Department of Medicinal Bioscience, College of Interdisciplinary & Creative Studies, Konyang University, Nonsan, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Chan Oh
- Natural Products Research Institute, College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jeeyeon Lee
- College of Pharmacy and Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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13
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Chemical acylation of an acquired serine suppresses oncogenic signaling of K-Ras(G12S). Nat Chem Biol 2022; 18:1177-1183. [PMID: 35864332 DOI: 10.1038/s41589-022-01065-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Drugs that directly impede the function of driver oncogenes offer exceptional efficacy and a therapeutic window. The recently approved mutant selective small-molecule cysteine-reactive covalent inhibitor of the G12C mutant of K-Ras, sotorasib, provides a case in point. KRAS is the most frequently mutated proto-oncogene in human cancer, yet despite success targeting the G12C allele, targeted therapy for other hotspot mutants of KRAS has not been described. Here we report the discovery of small molecules that covalently target a G12S somatic mutation in K-Ras and suppress its oncogenic signaling. We show that these molecules are active in cells expressing K-Ras(G12S) but spare the wild-type protein. Our results provide a path to targeting a second somatic mutation in the oncogene KRAS by overcoming the weak nucleophilicity of an acquired serine residue. The chemistry we describe may serve as a basis for the selective targeting of other unactivated serines.
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14
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Armijo ME, Escalona E, Peña D, Farias A, Morin V, Baumann M, Klebl BM, Pincheira R, Castro AF. Blocking the Farnesyl Pocket of PDEδ Reduces Rheb-Dependent mTORC1 Activation and Survival of Tsc2-Null Cells. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:912688. [PMID: 35814251 PMCID: PMC9260180 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.912688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Rheb is a small GTPase member of the Ras superfamily and an activator of mTORC1, a protein complex master regulator of cell metabolism, growth, and proliferation. Rheb/mTORC1 pathway is hyperactivated in proliferative diseases, such as Tuberous Sclerosis Complex syndrome and cancer. Therefore, targeting Rheb-dependent signaling is a rational strategy for developing new drug therapies. Rheb activates mTORC1 in the cytosolic surface of lysosomal membranes. Rheb’s farnesylation allows its anchorage on membranes, while its proper localization depends on the prenyl-binding chaperone PDEδ. Recently, the use of PDEδ inhibitors has been proposed as anticancer agents because they interrupted KRas signaling leading to antiproliferative effects in KRas-dependent pancreatic cancer cells. However, the effect of PDEδ inhibition on the Rheb/mTORC1 pathway has been poorly investigated. Here, we evaluated the impact of a new PDEδ inhibitor, called Deltasonamide 1, in Tsc2-null MEFs, a Rheb-dependent overactivated mTORC1 cell line. By using a yeast two-hybrid assay, we first validated that Deltasonamide 1 disrupts Rheb-PDEδ interaction. Accordingly, we found that Deltasonamide 1 reduces mTORC1 targets activation. In addition, our results showed that Deltasonamide 1 has antiproliferative and cytotoxic effects on Tsc2-null MEFs but has less effect on Tsc2-wild type MEFs viability. This work proposes the pharmacological PDEδ inhibition as a new approach to target the abnormal Rheb/mTORC1 activation in Tuberous Sclerosis Complex cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marisol Estrella Armijo
- Laboratorio de Transducción de Señales y Cáncer, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- Laboratorio de Investigación en Ciencias Biomédicas, Departamento de Ciencias Básicas y Morfología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Emilia Escalona
- Laboratorio de Transducción de Señales y Cáncer, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Daniela Peña
- Laboratorio de Transducción de Señales y Cáncer, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Alejandro Farias
- Laboratorio de Transducción de Señales y Cáncer, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | - Violeta Morin
- Laboratorio de Proteasas y Cáncer, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
| | | | | | - Roxana Pincheira
- Laboratorio de Transducción de Señales y Cáncer, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- *Correspondence: Roxana Pincheira, ; Ariel Fernando Castro,
| | - Ariel Fernando Castro
- Laboratorio de Transducción de Señales y Cáncer, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad de Concepción, Concepción, Chile
- *Correspondence: Roxana Pincheira, ; Ariel Fernando Castro,
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15
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Proteolysis-targeting chimeras: A promising technique in cancer therapy for gaining insights into tumor development. Cancer Lett 2022; 539:215716. [DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2022.215716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2022] [Revised: 04/10/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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16
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Nussinov R, Zhang M, Maloney R, Tsai C, Yavuz BR, Tuncbag N, Jang H. Mechanism of activation and the rewired network: New drug design concepts. Med Res Rev 2022; 42:770-799. [PMID: 34693559 PMCID: PMC8837674 DOI: 10.1002/med.21863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Precision oncology benefits from effective early phase drug discovery decisions. Recently, drugging inactive protein conformations has shown impressive successes, raising the cardinal questions of which targets can profit and what are the principles of the active/inactive protein pharmacology. Cancer driver mutations have been established to mimic the protein activation mechanism. We suggest that the decision whether to target an inactive (or active) conformation should largely rest on the protein mechanism of activation. We next discuss the recent identification of double (multiple) same-allele driver mutations and their impact on cell proliferation and suggest that like single driver mutations, double drivers also mimic the mechanism of activation. We further suggest that the structural perturbations of double (multiple) in cis mutations may reveal new surfaces/pockets for drug design. Finally, we underscore the preeminent role of the cellular network which is deregulated in cancer. Our structure-based review and outlook updates the traditional Mechanism of Action, informs decisions, and calls attention to the intrinsic activation mechanism of the target protein and the rewired tumor-specific network, ushering innovative considerations in precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Nussinov
- Computational Structural Biology Section, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research in the Laboratory of Cancer ImmunometabolismNational Cancer InstituteFrederickMarylandUSA
- Department of Human Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, Sackler School of MedicineTel Aviv UniversityTel AvivIsrael
| | - Mingzhen Zhang
- Computational Structural Biology Section, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research in the Laboratory of Cancer ImmunometabolismNational Cancer InstituteFrederickMarylandUSA
| | - Ryan Maloney
- Computational Structural Biology Section, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research in the Laboratory of Cancer ImmunometabolismNational Cancer InstituteFrederickMarylandUSA
| | - Chung‐Jung Tsai
- Computational Structural Biology Section, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research in the Laboratory of Cancer ImmunometabolismNational Cancer InstituteFrederickMarylandUSA
| | - Bengi Ruken Yavuz
- Department of Health Informatics, Graduate School of InformaticsMiddle East Technical UniversityAnkaraTurkey
| | - Nurcan Tuncbag
- Department of Health Informatics, Graduate School of InformaticsMiddle East Technical UniversityAnkaraTurkey
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, College of EngineeringKoc UniversityIstanbulTurkey
- Koc University Research Center for Translational Medicine, School of MedicineKoc UniversityIstanbulTurkey
| | - Hyunbum Jang
- Computational Structural Biology Section, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research in the Laboratory of Cancer ImmunometabolismNational Cancer InstituteFrederickMarylandUSA
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17
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Pavic K, Chippalkatti R, Abankwa D. Drug targeting opportunities en route to Ras nanoclusters. Adv Cancer Res 2022; 153:63-99. [PMID: 35101236 DOI: 10.1016/bs.acr.2021.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Disruption of the native membrane organization of Ras by the farnesyltransferase inhibitor tipifarnib in the late 1990s constituted the first indirect approach to drug target Ras. Since then, our understanding of how dynamically Ras shuttles between subcellular locations has changed significantly. Ras proteins have to arrive at the plasma membrane for efficient MAPK-signal propagation. On the plasma membrane Ras proteins are organized into isoform specific proteo-lipid assemblies called nanocluster. Recent evidence suggests that Ras nanocluster have a specific lipid composition, which supports the recruitment of effectors such as Raf. Conversely, effectors possess lipid-recognition motifs, which appear to serve as co-incidence detectors for the lipid domain of a given Ras isoform. Evidence suggests that dimeric Raf proteins then co-assemble dimeric Ras in an immobile complex, thus forming the minimal unit of an active nanocluster. Here we review established and novel trafficking chaperones and trafficking factors of Ras, along with the set of lipid and protein modulators of Ras nanoclustering. We highlight drug targeting approaches and opportunities against these determinants of functional Ras membrane organization. Finally, we reflect on implications for Ras signaling in polarized cells, such as epithelia, which are a common origin of tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Pavic
- Cancer Cell Biology and Drug Discovery Group, Department of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Rohan Chippalkatti
- Cancer Cell Biology and Drug Discovery Group, Department of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Daniel Abankwa
- Cancer Cell Biology and Drug Discovery Group, Department of Life Sciences and Medicine, University of Luxembourg, Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg.
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18
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Teng M, Lu W, Donovan KA, Sun J, Krupnick NM, Nowak RP, Li YD, Sperling AS, Zhang T, Ebert BL, Fischer ES, Gray NS. Development of PDE6D and CK1α Degraders through Chemical Derivatization of FPFT-2216. J Med Chem 2022; 65:747-756. [PMID: 34965125 PMCID: PMC10297557 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Immunomodulatory drugs are a class of drugs approved for the treatment of multiple myeloma. These compounds exert their clinical effects by inducing interactions between the CRL4CRBN E3 ubiquitin ligase and a C2H2 zinc finger degron motif, resulting in degradation of degron-containing targets. However, although many cellular proteins feature the degron motif, only a subset of those are degradable via this strategy. Here, we demonstrated that FPFT-2216, a previously reported "molecular glue" compound, degrades PDE6D, in addition to IKZF1, IKZF3, and CK1α. We used FPFT-2216 as a starting point for a focused medicinal chemistry campaign and developed TMX-4100 and TMX-4116, which exhibit greater selectivity for degrading PDE6D and CK1α, respectively. We also showed that the region in PDE6D that interacts with the FPFT-2216 derivatives is not the previously pursued prenyl-binding pocket. Moreover, we found that PDE6D depletion by FPFT-2216 does not impede the growth of KRASG12C-dependent MIA PaCa-2 cells, highlighting the challenges of drugging PDE6D-KRAS. Taken together, the approach we described here represents a general scheme to rapidly develop selective degraders by reprogramming E3 ubiquitin ligase substrate specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingxing Teng
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Wenchao Lu
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, ChEM-H, Stanford Cancer Institute, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Katherine A Donovan
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Jialin Sun
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Noah M Krupnick
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Radosław P Nowak
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Yen-Der Li
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Adam S Sperling
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Tinghu Zhang
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, ChEM-H, Stanford Cancer Institute, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Benjamin L Ebert
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
- Department of Medical Oncology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Eric S Fischer
- Department of Cancer Biology, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Nathanael S Gray
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, ChEM-H, Stanford Cancer Institute, School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
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19
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Guo M, He S, Cheng J, Li Y, Dong G, Sheng C. Hydrophobic Tagging-Induced Degradation of PDEδ in Colon Cancer Cells. ACS Med Chem Lett 2022; 13:298-303. [PMID: 35178186 PMCID: PMC8842115 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.1c00670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of KRAS-PDEδ protein-protein interaction (PPI) inhibitors is generally hampered by limited antitumor activity. Herein, the first hydrophobic tagging (HyT)-based PDEδ degraders were designed. Compound 17c efficiently bound to PDEδ and induced degradation of PDEδ in SW480 colon cancer cells. As compared with PDEδ inhibitor deltazinone, HyT-based degrader 17c exhibited improved antitumor activity toward KRAS mutant cancer cells. This study highlighted the potential of HyT as a valuable chemical tool for tumorigenic PDEδ knockdown, which could be developed into a promising strategy for antitumor drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menglu Guo
- School
of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Shipeng He
- Institute
of Translational Medicine, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Junfei Cheng
- School
of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Yu Li
- School
of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Guoqiang Dong
- School
of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, China,
| | - Chunquan Sheng
- School
of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, China,
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20
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Li Y, Hu L, Xu C. Kirsten rat sarcoma inhibitors in clinical development against nonsmall cell lung cancer. Curr Opin Oncol 2022; 34:66-76. [PMID: 34690284 DOI: 10.1097/cco.0000000000000808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The unique structure made Kirsten rat sarcoma (KRAS) 'undruggable' for quite an extended period. The functional mechanism of this small protein is well illustrated. However, there is no precision medicine for nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients burden with KRAS mutation. The attempts made by scientists to make challenge history against KRAS mutation and their druggable targets are worth elucidating. RECENT FINDINGS The appearance of orphan drug AMG510 in the market specifically targeting KRASG12C is a tremendous breakthrough. Several KRAS inhibitors are under development now. More studies focus on combo treatment of KRAS inhibition and immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs). Recent preclinical and clinical investigations have been reported that NSCLC patients with KRAS mutation can benefit from ICIs. SUMMARY The current review elucidates the development of KRAS inhibitors from basic research to clinical precision medicines. We retrospectively analyze the development of KRAS mutation targeting drugs and discuss the investigations for future development of KRAS inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunchang Li
- Integrative Cancer Center and Cancer Clinical Research Center, Sichuan Cancer Hospital and Institute, Sichuan Cancer Center, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
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21
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Chen L, Zhang J, Wang X, Li Y, Zhou L, Lu X, Dong G, Sheng C. Discovery of novel KRAS‒PDE δ inhibitors with potent activity in patient-derived human pancreatic tumor xenograft models. Acta Pharm Sin B 2022; 12:274-290. [PMID: 35127385 PMCID: PMC8799878 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2021.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2021] [Revised: 07/03/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
KRAS‒PDEδ interaction is revealed as a promising target for suppressing the function of mutant KRAS. The bottleneck in clinical development of PDEδ inhibitors is the poor antitumor activity of known chemotypes. Here, we identified novel spiro-cyclic PDEδ inhibitors with potent antitumor activity both in vitro and in vivo. In particular, compound 36l (K D = 127 ± 16 nmol/L) effectively bound to PDEδ and interfered with KRAS-PDEδ interaction. It influenced the distribution of KRAS in Mia PaCa-2 cells, downregulated the phosphorylation of t-ERK and t-AKT and promoted apoptosis of the cells. The novel inhibitor 36l exhibited significant in vivo antitumor potency in pancreatic cancer patient-derived xenograft (PDX) models. It represents a promising lead compound for investigating the druggability of KRAS‒PDEδ interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long Chen
- School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Department of Pathology, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200003, China
| | - Xinjing Wang
- Department of General Surgery, Pancreatic Disease Center, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200025, China
- Research Institute of Pancreatic Diseases, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Yu Li
- School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Lu Zhou
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Xiongxiong Lu
- Department of General Surgery, Pancreatic Disease Center, Ruijin Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200025, China
- Research Institute of Pancreatic Diseases, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
- Corresponding authors. Tel./fax: +86 21 64370045 671003 (Xiongxiong Lu), +86 21 81871242 (Guoqiang Dong), +86 21 81871239 (Chunquan Sheng).
| | - Guoqiang Dong
- School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
- Corresponding authors. Tel./fax: +86 21 64370045 671003 (Xiongxiong Lu), +86 21 81871242 (Guoqiang Dong), +86 21 81871239 (Chunquan Sheng).
| | - Chunquan Sheng
- School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai 200433, China
- Corresponding authors. Tel./fax: +86 21 64370045 671003 (Xiongxiong Lu), +86 21 81871242 (Guoqiang Dong), +86 21 81871239 (Chunquan Sheng).
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22
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Ritu K, Kumar P, Singh A, Nupur K, Spalgias S, Mrigpuri P, Rajkumar. Untangling the KRAS mutated lung cancer subsets and its therapeutic implications. MOLECULAR BIOMEDICINE 2021; 2:40. [PMID: 34918209 PMCID: PMC8677854 DOI: 10.1186/s43556-021-00061-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The Kirsten rat sarcoma virus transforming protein (KRAS) mutations (predominate in codons 12, 13, and 61) and genomically drive nearly one-third of lung carcinomas. These mutations have complex functions in tumorigenesis, and influence the tumor response to chemotherapy and tyrosine kinase inhibitors resulting in a poorer patient prognosis. Recent attempts using targeted therapies against KRAS alone have met with little success. The existence of specific subsets of lung cancer based on KRAS mutations and coexisting mutations are suggested. Their interactions need further elaboration before newer promising targeted therapies for KRAS mutant lung cancers can be used as earlier lines of therapy. We summarize the existing knowledge of KRAS mutations and their coexisting mutations that is relevant to lung cancer treatment, in this review. We elaborate on the prognostic impact of clinical and pathologic characteristics of lung cancer patients associated with KRAS mutations. We briefly review the currently available techniques for KRAS mutation detection on biopsy and cytology samples. Finally, we discuss the new therapeutic strategies for targeting KRAS-mutant non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). These may herald a new era in the treatment of KRASG12Cmutated NSCLC as well as be helpful to develop demographic subsets to predict targeted therapies and prognosis of lung cancer patients.
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23
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Rahman S, Garrel S, Gerber M, Maitra R, Goel S. Therapeutic Targets of KRAS in Colorectal Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:6233. [PMID: 34944853 PMCID: PMC8699097 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13246233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 12/07/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients with metastatic colorectal cancer have a 5-year overall survival of less than 10%. Approximately 45% of patients with metastatic colorectal cancer harbor KRAS mutations. These mutations not only carry a predictive role for the absence of response to anti-EGFR therapy, but also have a negative prognostic impact on the overall survival. There is a growing unmet need for a personalized therapy approach for patients with KRAS-mutant colorectal cancer. In this article, we focus on the therapeutic strategies targeting KRAS- mutant CRC, while reviewing and elaborating on the discovery and physiology of KRAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shafia Rahman
- Department of Medical Oncology, Montefiore Medical Center/Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1695 Eastchester Road Bronx, New York, NY 10461, USA; (S.R.); (R.M.)
| | - Shimon Garrel
- Department of Biology, Lander College For Men, 75-31 150th Street, Flushing, New York, NY 11367, USA;
| | - Michael Gerber
- Department of Biology, Yeshiva University, 500 West 185th Street, New York, NY 10033, USA;
| | - Radhashree Maitra
- Department of Medical Oncology, Montefiore Medical Center/Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1695 Eastchester Road Bronx, New York, NY 10461, USA; (S.R.); (R.M.)
- Department of Biology, Yeshiva University, 500 West 185th Street, New York, NY 10033, USA;
| | - Sanjay Goel
- Department of Medical Oncology, Montefiore Medical Center/Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1695 Eastchester Road Bronx, New York, NY 10461, USA; (S.R.); (R.M.)
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24
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Role of oncogenic KRAS in the prognosis, diagnosis and treatment of colorectal cancer. Mol Cancer 2021; 20:143. [PMID: 34742312 PMCID: PMC8571891 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-021-01441-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 46.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a heterogeneous disease at the cellular and molecular levels. Kirsten rat sarcoma (KRAS) is a commonly mutated oncogene in CRC, with mutations in approximately 40% of all CRC cases; its mutations result in constitutive activation of the KRAS protein, which acts as a molecular switch to persistently stimulate downstream signaling pathways, including cell proliferation and survival, thereby leading to tumorigenesis. Patients whose CRC harbors KRAS mutations have a dismal prognosis. Currently, KRAS mutation testing is a routine clinical practice before treating metastatic cases, and the approaches developed to detect KRAS mutations have exhibited favorable sensitivity and accuracy. Due to the presence of KRAS mutations, this group of CRC patients requires more precise therapies. However, KRAS was historically thought to be an undruggable target until the development of KRASG12C allele-specific inhibitors. These promising inhibitors may provide novel strategies to treat KRAS-mutant CRC. Here, we provide an overview of the role of KRAS in the prognosis, diagnosis and treatment of CRC.
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Mateus A, Kurzawa N, Perrin J, Bergamini G, Savitski MM. Drug Target Identification in Tissues by Thermal Proteome Profiling. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 2021; 62:465-482. [PMID: 34499524 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-052120-013205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Drug target deconvolution can accelerate the drug discovery process by identifying a drug's targets (facilitating medicinal chemistry efforts) and off-targets (anticipating toxicity effects or adverse drug reactions). Multiple mass spectrometry-based approaches have been developed for this purpose, but thermal proteome profiling (TPP) remains to date the only one that does not require compound modification and can be used to identify intracellular targets in living cells. TPP is based on the principle that the thermal stability of a protein can be affected by its interactions. Recent developments of this approach have expanded its applications beyond drugs and cell cultures to studying protein-drug interactions and biological phenomena in tissues. These developments open up the possibility of studying drug treatment or mechanisms of disease in a holistic fashion, which can result in the design of better drugs and lead to a better understanding of fundamental biology. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Volume 62 is January 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Mateus
- Genome Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany;
| | - Nils Kurzawa
- Genome Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany; .,Faculty of Biosciences, Heidelberg University, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Jessica Perrin
- Cellzome GmbH, GlaxoSmithKline, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | | | - Mikhail M Savitski
- Genome Biology Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany;
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Chen K, Zhang Y, Qian L, Wang P. Emerging strategies to target RAS signaling in human cancer therapy. J Hematol Oncol 2021; 14:116. [PMID: 34301278 PMCID: PMC8299671 DOI: 10.1186/s13045-021-01127-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
RAS mutations (HRAS, NRAS, and KRAS) are among the most common oncogenes, and around 19% of patients with cancer harbor RAS mutations. Cells harboring RAS mutations tend to undergo malignant transformation and exhibit malignant phenotypes. The mutational status of RAS correlates with the clinicopathological features of patients, such as mucinous type and poor differentiation, as well as response to anti-EGFR therapies in certain types of human cancers. Although RAS protein had been considered as a potential target for tumors with RAS mutations, it was once referred to as a undruggable target due to the consecutive failure in the discovery of RAS protein inhibitors. However, recent studies on the structure, signaling, and function of RAS have shed light on the development of RAS-targeting drugs, especially with the approval of Lumakras (sotorasib, AMG510) in treatment of KRASG12C-mutant NSCLC patients. Therefore, here we fully review RAS mutations in human cancer and especially focus on emerging strategies that have been recently developed for RAS-targeting therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Chen
- Department of Integrative Oncology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, 270 Dong An Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Yalei Zhang
- Department of Integrative Oncology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, 270 Dong An Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Ling Qian
- Department of Integrative Oncology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, 270 Dong An Road, Shanghai, 200032, China
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Peng Wang
- Department of Integrative Oncology, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, 270 Dong An Road, Shanghai, 200032, China.
- Department of Oncology, Shanghai Medical College, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032, China.
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Schmick M, Bastiaens PIH. Understanding Ras Spatial Cycles Through Reaction-Diffusion Simulations. METHODS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (CLIFTON, N.J.) 2021; 2262:199-215. [PMID: 33977478 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-1190-6_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Reaction-diffusion simulations allow us to recapitulate experimentally observed behavior, e.g., from time series of fluorescent micrographs. This is essential to inform our intuitive understanding of the chemical and biophysical interaction of proteins in a cellular context as well as their role in reaction networks. This chapter aims to give a brief introduction to setting up reaction-diffusion simulations and applies these in silico techniques to take apart the spatial cycles that maintain Ras localization in the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malte Schmick
- Department of Systemic Cell Biology, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Philippe I H Bastiaens
- Department of Systemic Cell Biology, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology, Dortmund, Germany. .,Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, TU Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany.
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28
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Henkels KM, Rehl KM, Cho KJ. Blocking K-Ras Interaction With the Plasma Membrane Is a Tractable Therapeutic Approach to Inhibit Oncogenic K-Ras Activity. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:673096. [PMID: 34222333 PMCID: PMC8244928 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.673096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Ras proteins are membrane-bound small GTPases that promote cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. Consistent with this key regulatory role, activating mutations of Ras are present in ∼19% of new cancer cases in the United States per year. K-Ras is one of the three ubiquitously expressed isoforms in mammalian cells, and oncogenic mutations in this isoform account for ∼75% of Ras-driven cancers. Therefore, pharmacological agents that block oncogenic K-Ras activity would have great clinical utility. Most efforts to block oncogenic Ras activity have focused on Ras downstream effectors, but these inhibitors only show limited clinical benefits in Ras-driven cancers due to the highly divergent signals arising from Ras activation. Currently, four major approaches are being extensively studied to target K-Ras–driven cancers. One strategy is to block K-Ras binding to the plasma membrane (PM) since K-Ras requires the PM binding for its signal transduction. Here, we summarize recently identified molecular mechanisms that regulate K-Ras–PM interaction. Perturbing these mechanisms using pharmacological agents blocks K-Ras–PM binding and inhibits K-Ras signaling and growth of K-Ras–driven cancer cells. Together, these studies propose that blocking K-Ras–PM binding is a tractable strategy for developing anti–K-Ras therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen M Henkels
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Boonshoft School of Medicine, Wright State University, Dayton, OH, United States
| | - Kristen M Rehl
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Boonshoft School of Medicine, Wright State University, Dayton, OH, United States
| | - Kwang-Jin Cho
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Boonshoft School of Medicine, Wright State University, Dayton, OH, United States
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Nussinov R, Jang H, Gursoy A, Keskin O, Gaponenko V. Inhibition of Nonfunctional Ras. Cell Chem Biol 2021; 28:121-133. [PMID: 33440168 PMCID: PMC7897307 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2020.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Intuitively, functional states should be targeted; not nonfunctional ones. So why could drugging the inactive K-Ras4BG12Cwork-but drugging the inactive kinase will likely not? The reason is the distinct oncogenic mechanisms. Kinase driver mutations work by stabilizing the active state and/or destabilizing the inactive state. Either way, oncogenic kinases are mostly in the active state. Ras driver mutations work by quelling its deactivation mechanisms, GTP hydrolysis, and nucleotide exchange. Covalent inhibitors that bind to the inactive GDP-bound K-Ras4BG12C conformation can thus work. By contrast, in kinases, allosteric inhibitors work by altering the active-site conformation to favor orthosteric drugs. From the translational standpoint this distinction is vital: it expedites effective pharmaceutical development and extends the drug classification based on the mechanism of action. Collectively, here we postulate that drug action relates to blocking the mechanism of activation, not to whether the protein is in the active or inactive state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Nussinov
- Computational Structural Biology Section, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research in the Laboratory of Cancer Immunometabolism, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; Department of Human Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel.
| | - Hyunbum Jang
- Computational Structural Biology Section, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research in the Laboratory of Cancer Immunometabolism, National Cancer Institute, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Attila Gursoy
- Department of Computer Engineering, Koc University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey
| | - Ozlem Keskin
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Koc University, Istanbul 34450, Turkey
| | - Vadim Gaponenko
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607, USA.
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30
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Promotion of cancer cell stemness by Ras. Biochem Soc Trans 2021; 49:467-476. [PMID: 33544116 PMCID: PMC7925005 DOI: 10.1042/bst20200964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Revised: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cancer stem cells (CSC) may be the most relevant and elusive cancer cell population, as they have the exquisite ability to seed new tumors. It is plausible, that highly mutated cancer genes, such as KRAS, are functionally associated with processes contributing to the emergence of stemness traits. In this review, we will summarize the evidence for a stemness driving activity of oncogenic Ras. This activity appears to differ by Ras isoform, with the highly mutated KRAS having a particularly profound impact. Next to established stemness pathways such as Wnt and Hedgehog (Hh), the precise, cell cycle dependent orchestration of the MAPK-pathway appears to relay Ras activation in this context. We will examine how non-canonical activities of K-Ras4B (hereafter K-Ras) could be enabled by its trafficking chaperones calmodulin and PDE6D/PDEδ. Both dynamically localize to the cellular machinery that is intimately linked to cell fate decisions, such as the primary cilium and the centrosome. Thus, it can be speculated that oncogenic K-Ras disrupts fundamental polarized signaling and asymmetric apportioning processes that are necessary during cell differentiation.
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Rosenqvist P, Sabt A, Dyunyasheva V, Abankwa D, Virta P, Ora M. Stability of the Phosphotriester PDE6D Inhibitors. ChemistrySelect 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202004426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Petja Rosenqvist
- Department of Chemistry University of Turku FI- 20014 Turku Finland
| | - Ahmed Sabt
- Chemistry of Natural Compounds Department National Research Centre Dokki 12622 Giza Egypt
| | | | - Daniel Abankwa
- Department of Life Sciences and Medicine University of Luxembourg 4362 Esch-sur-Alzette Luxembourg
| | - Pasi Virta
- Department of Chemistry University of Turku FI- 20014 Turku Finland
| | - Mikko Ora
- Department of Chemistry University of Turku FI- 20014 Turku Finland
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Abstract
RAS proteins control a number of essential cellular processes as molecular switches in the human body. Presumably due to their important signalling role, RAS proteins are among the most frequently mutated oncogenes in human cancers. Hence, numerous efforts were done to develop appropriate therapies for RAS-mutant cancers in the last three decades. This review aimed to collect all of the reported small molecules that affect RAS signalling. These molecules can be divided in four main branches. First, we address approaches blocking RAS membrane association. Second, we focus on the stabilization efforts of non-productive RAS complexes. Third, we examine the approach to block RAS downstream signalling through disturbance of RAS-effector complex formation. Finally, we discuss direct inhibition; particularly the most recently reported covalent inhibitors, which are already advanced to human clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoltán Orgován
- Medicinal Chemistry Research Group, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, 2 Magyar tudósok körútja, Budapest, H-1117, Hungary
| | - György M Keserű
- Medicinal Chemistry Research Group, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, 2 Magyar tudósok körútja, Budapest, H-1117, Hungary.
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Marshall CB, KleinJan F, Gebregiworgis T, Lee KY, Fang Z, Eves BJ, Liu NF, Gasmi-Seabrook GMC, Enomoto M, Ikura M. NMR in integrated biophysical drug discovery for RAS: past, present, and future. JOURNAL OF BIOMOLECULAR NMR 2020; 74:531-554. [PMID: 32804298 DOI: 10.1007/s10858-020-00338-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/16/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in RAS oncogenes occur in ~ 30% of human cancers, with KRAS being the most frequently altered isoform. RAS proteins comprise a conserved GTPase domain and a C-terminal lipid-modified tail that is unique to each isoform. The GTPase domain is a 'switch' that regulates multiple signaling cascades that drive cell growth and proliferation when activated by binding GTP, and the signal is terminated by GTP hydrolysis. Oncogenic RAS mutations disrupt the GTPase cycle, leading to accumulation of the activated GTP-bound state and promoting proliferation. RAS is a key target in oncology, however it lacks classic druggable pockets and has been extremely challenging to target. RAS signaling has thus been targeted indirectly, by harnessing key downstream effectors as well as upstream regulators, or disrupting the proper membrane localization required for signaling, by inhibiting either lipid modification or 'carrier' proteins. As a small (20 kDa) protein with multiple conformers in dynamic equilibrium, RAS is an excellent candidate for NMR-driven characterization and screening for direct inhibitors. Several molecules have been discovered that bind RAS and stabilize shallow pockets through conformational selection, and recent compounds have achieved substantial improvements in affinity. NMR-derived insight into targeting the RAS-membrane interface has revealed a new strategy to enhance the potency of small molecules, while another approach has been development of peptidyl inhibitors that bind through large interfaces rather than deep pockets. Remarkable progress has been made with mutation-specific covalent inhibitors that target the thiol of a G12C mutant, and these are now in clinical trials. Here we review the history of RAS inhibitor development and highlight the utility of NMR and integrated biophysical approaches in RAS drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher B Marshall
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, M5G 1L7, Canada.
| | - Fenneke KleinJan
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Teklab Gebregiworgis
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Ki-Young Lee
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Zhenhao Fang
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, M5G 1L7, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Ben J Eves
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Ningdi F Liu
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, M5G 1L7, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5G 1L7, Canada
| | | | - Masahiro Enomoto
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Mitsuhiko Ikura
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, ON, M5G 1L7, Canada.
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5G 1L7, Canada.
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Zhang Z, Gao R, Hu Q, Peacock H, Peacock DM, Dai S, Shokat KM, Suga H. GTP-State-Selective Cyclic Peptide Ligands of K-Ras(G12D) Block Its Interaction with Raf. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2020; 6:1753-1761. [PMID: 33145412 PMCID: PMC7596874 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.0c00514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2020] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
We report the identification of three cyclic peptide ligands of K-Ras(G12D) using an integrated in vitro translation-mRNA display selection platform. These cyclic peptides show preferential binding to the GTP-bound state of K-Ras(G12D) over the GDP-bound state and block Ras-Raf interaction. A co-crystal structure of peptide KD2 with K-Ras(G12D)·GppNHp reveals that this peptide binds in the Switch II groove region with concomitant opening of the Switch II loop and a 40° rotation of the α2 helix, and that a threonine residue (Thr10) on KD2 has direct access to the mutant aspartate (Asp12) on K-Ras. Replacing this threonine with non-natural amino acids afforded peptides with improved potency at inhibiting the interaction between Raf1-RBD and K-Ras(G12D) but not wildtype K-Ras. The union of G12D over wildtype selectivity and GTP state/GDP state selectivity is particularly desirable, considering that oncogenic K-Ras(G12D) exists predominantly in the GTP state in cancer cells, and wildtype K-Ras signaling is important for the maintenance of healthy cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyang Zhang
- Department of Cellular
and Molecular Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California—San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Rong Gao
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Qi Hu
- Department of Cellular
and Molecular Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California—San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Hayden Peacock
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - D. Matthew Peacock
- Department of Cellular
and Molecular Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California—San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Shizhong Dai
- Department of Cellular
and Molecular Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California—San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Kevan M. Shokat
- Department of Cellular
and Molecular Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California—San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94158, United States
| | - Hiroaki Suga
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
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Lu H, Zhou Q, He J, Jiang Z, Peng C, Tong R, Shi J. Recent advances in the development of protein-protein interactions modulators: mechanisms and clinical trials. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2020; 5:213. [PMID: 32968059 PMCID: PMC7511340 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-020-00315-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 375] [Impact Index Per Article: 93.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Revised: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) have pivotal roles in life processes. The studies showed that aberrant PPIs are associated with various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, and neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, targeting PPIs is a direction in treating diseases and an essential strategy for the development of new drugs. In the past few decades, the modulation of PPIs has been recognized as one of the most challenging drug discovery tasks. In recent years, some PPIs modulators have entered clinical studies, some of which been approved for marketing, indicating that the modulators targeting PPIs have broad prospects. Here, we summarize the recent advances in PPIs modulators, including small molecules, peptides, and antibodies, hoping to provide some guidance to the design of novel drugs targeting PPIs in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiying Lu
- Personalized Drug Therapy Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Department of Pharmacy, Sichuan Academy of Medical Science & Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, 610072, Chengdu, China
| | - Qiaodan Zhou
- Department of Ultrasonic, Sichuan Academy of Medical Science & Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, 610072, Chengdu, China
| | - Jun He
- Cancer Center, West China Hospital, Sichuan University and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, 610041, Sichuan, China
| | - Zhongliang Jiang
- Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, FL, 33136, USA
| | - Cheng Peng
- The Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Standardization of Chinese Herbal Medicines of Ministry, State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Systematic Research, Development and Utilization of Chinese Medicine Resources, Pharmacy College, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 611137, Chengdu, China.
| | - Rongsheng Tong
- Personalized Drug Therapy Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Department of Pharmacy, Sichuan Academy of Medical Science & Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, 610072, Chengdu, China.
| | - Jianyou Shi
- Personalized Drug Therapy Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Department of Pharmacy, Sichuan Academy of Medical Science & Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, School of Medicine, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, 610072, Chengdu, China.
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Kattan WE, Hancock JF. RAS Function in cancer cells: translating membrane biology and biochemistry into new therapeutics. Biochem J 2020; 477:2893-2919. [PMID: 32797215 PMCID: PMC7891675 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20190839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The three human RAS proteins are mutated and constitutively activated in ∼20% of cancers leading to cell growth and proliferation. For the past three decades, many attempts have been made to inhibit these proteins with little success. Recently; however, multiple methods have emerged to inhibit KRAS, the most prevalently mutated isoform. These methods and the underlying biology will be discussed in this review with a special focus on KRAS-plasma membrane interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walaa E. Kattan
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, TX 77030, USA
- The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, TX 77030, USA
| | - John F. Hancock
- Department of Integrative Biology and Pharmacology, McGovern Medical School University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, TX 77030, USA
- The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, TX 77030, USA
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Cheng J, Li Y, Wang X, Dong G, Sheng C. Discovery of Novel PDEδ Degraders for the Treatment of KRAS Mutant Colorectal Cancer. J Med Chem 2020; 63:7892-7905. [PMID: 32603594 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c00929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
KRAS-PDEδ protein-protein interaction represents an appealing target for cancer therapy. However, fast release of high-affinity inhibitors from PDEδ hampered drug binding affinity and antiproliferative activity. To overcome the limitations, the first proteolysis-targeting chimeric (PROTAC) small molecules targeting PDEδ were designed. By employment of PDEδ inhibitor deltazinone (2) and cereblon ligand pomalidomide (6), a series of potent PROTAC PDEδ degraders were obtained. The most promising compound 17f efficiently induced PDEδ degradation and demonstrated significantly improved antiproliferative potency in KRAS mutant SW480 cells. Compound 17f also achieved significant tumor growth inhibition in the SW480 colorectal cancer xenograft model. This proof-of-concept study provided a new strategy to validate the druggability of KRAS-PDEδ interaction and offered an effective lead compound for the treatment of KRAS mutant cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junfei Cheng
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu Li
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, People's Republic of China
| | - Xu Wang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, People's Republic of China
| | - Guoqiang Dong
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, People's Republic of China
| | - Chunquan Sheng
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, 325 Guohe Road, Shanghai 200433, People's Republic of China
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Abstract
RAS was identified as a human oncogene in the early 1980s and subsequently found to be mutated in nearly 30% of all human cancers. More importantly, RAS plays a central role in driving tumor development and maintenance. Despite decades of effort, there remain no FDA approved drugs that directly inhibit RAS. The prevalence of RAS mutations in cancer and the lack of effective anti-RAS therapies stem from RAS' core role in growth factor signaling, unique structural features, and biochemistry. However, recent advances have brought promising new drugs to clinical trials and shone a ray of hope in the field. Here, we will exposit the details of RAS biology that illustrate its key role in cell signaling and shed light on the difficulties in therapeutically targeting RAS. Furthermore, past and current efforts to develop RAS inhibitors will be discussed in depth.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Matthew Rhett
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States; Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, Charleston, SC, United States
| | - Imran Khan
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States; Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, Charleston, SC, United States
| | - John P O'Bryan
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, United States; Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, Charleston, SC, United States.
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39
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Goebel L, Müller MP, Goody RS, Rauh D. KRasG12C inhibitors in clinical trials: a short historical perspective. RSC Med Chem 2020; 11:760-770. [PMID: 33479673 PMCID: PMC7549139 DOI: 10.1039/d0md00096e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
KRas is the most frequently mutated oncogene in human cancer, and even 40 years after the initial discovery of Ras oncogenes in 1982, no approved drug directly targets Ras in Ras-driven cancer. New information and approaches for direct targeting of mutant Ras have fueled hope for the development of direct KRas inhibitors. In this review, we provide a comprehensive historical perspective of the development of promising KRasG12C inhibitors that covalently bind to the mutated cysteine residue in the switch-II pocket and trap the protein in the inactive GDP bound state. After decades of failure, three covalent G12C-specific inhibitors from three independent companies have recently entered clinical trials and therefore represent new hope for patients suffering from KRasG12C driven cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Goebel
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Biology , TU Dortmund University , Otto-Hahn-Strasse 4a , 44227 Dortmund , Germany .
- Drug Discovery Hub Dortmund (DDHD) am Zentrum für integrierte Wirkstoffforschung (ZIW) , 44227 Dortmund , Germany
| | - Matthias P Müller
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Biology , TU Dortmund University , Otto-Hahn-Strasse 4a , 44227 Dortmund , Germany .
- Drug Discovery Hub Dortmund (DDHD) am Zentrum für integrierte Wirkstoffforschung (ZIW) , 44227 Dortmund , Germany
| | - Roger S Goody
- Department of Structural Biochemistry , Max Planck Institute of Molecular Physiology , Otto-Hahn-Strasse 11 , 44227 Dortmund , Germany
| | - Daniel Rauh
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Biology , TU Dortmund University , Otto-Hahn-Strasse 4a , 44227 Dortmund , Germany .
- Drug Discovery Hub Dortmund (DDHD) am Zentrum für integrierte Wirkstoffforschung (ZIW) , 44227 Dortmund , Germany
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40
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A Non-Canonical Calmodulin Target Motif Comprising a Polybasic Region and Lipidated Terminal Residue Regulates Localization. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21082751. [PMID: 32326637 PMCID: PMC7216078 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21082751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2020] [Revised: 04/10/2020] [Accepted: 04/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Calmodulin (CaM) is a Ca2+-sensor that regulates a wide variety of target proteins, many of which interact through short basic helical motifs bearing two hydrophobic ‘anchor’ residues. CaM comprises two globular lobes, each containing a pair of EF-hand Ca2+-binding motifs that form a Ca2+-induced hydrophobic pocket that binds an anchor residue. A central flexible linker allows CaM to accommodate diverse targets. Several reported CaM interactors lack these anchors but contain Lys/Arg-rich polybasic sequences adjacent to a lipidated N- or C-terminus. Ca2+-CaM binds the myristoylated N-terminus of CAP23/NAP22 with intimate interactions between the lipid and a surface comprised of the hydrophobic pockets of both lobes, while the basic residues make electrostatic interactions with the negatively charged surface of CaM. Ca2+-CaM binds farnesylcysteine, derived from the farnesylated polybasic C-terminus of KRAS4b, with the lipid inserted into the C-terminal lobe hydrophobic pocket. CaM sequestration of the KRAS4b farnesyl moiety disrupts KRAS4b membrane association and downstream signaling. Phosphorylation of basic regions of N-/C-terminal lipidated CaM targets can reduce affinity for both CaM and the membrane. Since both N-terminal myristoylated and C-terminal prenylated proteins use a Singly Lipidated Polybasic Terminus (SLIPT) for CaM binding, we propose these polybasic lipopeptide elements comprise a non-canonical CaM-binding motif.
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41
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Grant BMM, Enomoto M, Back SI, Lee KY, Gebregiworgis T, Ishiyama N, Ikura M, Marshall CB. Calmodulin disrupts plasma membrane localization of farnesylated KRAS4b by sequestering its lipid moiety. Sci Signal 2020; 13:13/625/eaaz0344. [PMID: 32234958 DOI: 10.1126/scisignal.aaz0344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
KRAS4b is a small guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase) protein that regulates several signal transduction pathways that underlie cell proliferation, differentiation, and survival. KRAS4b function requires prenylation of its C terminus and recruitment to the plasma membrane, where KRAS4b activates effector proteins including the RAF family of kinases. The Ca2+-sensing protein calmodulin (CaM) has been suggested to regulate the localization of KRAS4b through direct, Ca2+-dependent interaction, but how CaM and KRAS4b functionally interact is controversial. Here, we determined a crystal structure, which was supported by solution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), that revealed the sequestration of the prenyl moiety of KRAS4b in the hydrophobic pocket of the C-terminal lobe of Ca2+-bound CaM. Our engineered fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based biosensor probes (CaMeRAS) showed that, upon stimulation of Ca2+ influx by extracellular ligands, KRAS4b reversibly translocated in a Ca2+-CaM-dependent manner from the plasma membrane to the cytoplasm in live HeLa and HEK293 cells. These results reveal a mechanism underlying the inhibition of KRAS4b activity by Ca2+ signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin M M Grant
- Princess Margaret Cancer Center, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada.,Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Masahiro Enomoto
- Princess Margaret Cancer Center, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Sung-In Back
- Princess Margaret Cancer Center, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada.,Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Ki-Young Lee
- Princess Margaret Cancer Center, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Teklab Gebregiworgis
- Princess Margaret Cancer Center, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Noboru Ishiyama
- Princess Margaret Cancer Center, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Mitsuhiko Ikura
- Princess Margaret Cancer Center, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada. .,Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Christopher B Marshall
- Princess Margaret Cancer Center, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada.
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42
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Winzker M, Friese A, Koch U, Janning P, Ziegler S, Waldmann H. Development of a PDEδ-Targeting PROTACs that Impair Lipid Metabolism. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020; 59:5595-5601. [PMID: 31829492 PMCID: PMC7154537 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201913904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The prenyl-protein chaperone PDEδ modulates the localization of lipidated proteins in the cell, but current knowledge about its biological function is limited. Small-molecule inhibitors that target the PDEδ prenyl-binding site have proven invaluable in the analysis of biological processes mediated by PDEδ, like KRas cellular trafficking. However, allosteric inhibitor release from PDEδ by the Arl2/3 GTPases limits their application. We describe the development of new proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs) that efficiently and selectively reduce PDEδ levels in cells through induced proteasomal degradation. Application of the PDEδ PROTACs increased sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP)-mediated gene expression of enzymes involved in lipid metabolism, which was accompanied by elevated levels of cholesterol precursors. This finding for the first time demonstrates that PDEδ function plays a role in the regulation of enzymes of the mevalonate pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Winzker
- Department of Chemical BiologyMax-Planck-Institute of Molecular PhysiologyOtto-Hahn-Straße 1144227DortmundGermany
| | - Alexandra Friese
- Department of Chemical BiologyMax-Planck-Institute of Molecular PhysiologyOtto-Hahn-Straße 1144227DortmundGermany
| | - Uwe Koch
- Lead Discovery Center GmbHOtto-Hahn-Straße 1544227DortmundGermany
| | - Petra Janning
- Department of Chemical BiologyMax-Planck-Institute of Molecular PhysiologyOtto-Hahn-Straße 1144227DortmundGermany
| | - Slava Ziegler
- Department of Chemical BiologyMax-Planck-Institute of Molecular PhysiologyOtto-Hahn-Straße 1144227DortmundGermany
| | - Herbert Waldmann
- Department of Chemical BiologyMax-Planck-Institute of Molecular PhysiologyOtto-Hahn-Straße 1144227DortmundGermany
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical BiologyTechnical University DortmundOtto-Hahn-Straße 644227DortmundGermany
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43
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Chen S, Li F, Xu D, Hou K, Fang W, Li Y. The Function of RAS Mutation in Cancer and Advances in its Drug Research. Curr Pharm Des 2020; 25:1105-1114. [PMID: 31057104 DOI: 10.2174/1381612825666190506122228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
RAS (H-ras, K-ras, and N-ras), as the second largest mutated gene driver in various human cancers, has long been a vital research target for cancer. Its function is to transform the extracellular environment into a cascade of intracellular signal transduction. RAS mutant protein regulates tumor cell proliferation, apoptosis, metabolism and angiogenesis through downstream MAPK, PI3K and other signaling pathways. In KRAS or other RAS-driven cancers, current treatments include direct inhibitors and upstream/downstream signaling pathway inhibitors. However, the research on these inhibitors has been largely restricted due to their escape inhibition and off-target toxicity. In this paper, we started with the role of normal and mutant RAS genes in cancer, elucidated the relevant RAS regulating pathways, and highlighted the important research advancements in RAS inhibitor research. We concluded that for the crosstalk between RAS pathways, the effect of single regulation may be limited, and the multi-target drug combined compensation mechanism is becoming a research hotspot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shijie Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Physiology, China Phar maceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Fengyang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Physiology, China Phar maceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Dan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Physiology, China Phar maceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Kai Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Physiology, China Phar maceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Weirong Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Physiology, China Phar maceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Yunman Li
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Physiology, China Phar maceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
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44
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Khan I, Rhett JM, O'Bryan JP. Therapeutic targeting of RAS: New hope for drugging the "undruggable". BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2020; 1867:118570. [PMID: 31678118 PMCID: PMC6937383 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2019.118570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2019] [Revised: 10/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
RAS is the most frequently mutated oncogene in cancer and a critical driver of oncogenesis. Therapeutic targeting of RAS has been a goal of cancer research for more than 30 years due to its essential role in tumor formation and maintenance. Yet the quest to inhibit this challenging foe has been elusive. Although once considered "undruggable", the struggle to directly inhibit RAS has seen recent success with the development of pharmacological agents that specifically target the KRAS(G12C) mutant protein, which include the first direct RAS inhibitor to gain entry to clinical trials. However, the limited applicability of these inhibitors to G12C-mutant tumors demands further efforts to identify more broadly efficacious RAS inhibitors. Understanding allosteric influences on RAS may open new avenues to inhibit RAS. Here, we provide a brief overview of RAS biology and biochemistry, discuss the allosteric regulation of RAS, and summarize the various approaches to develop RAS inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imran Khan
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, United States of America; Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, Charleston, SC 29401, United States of America
| | - J Matthew Rhett
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, United States of America; Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, Charleston, SC 29401, United States of America
| | - John P O'Bryan
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Hollings Cancer Center, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, United States of America; Ralph H. Johnson VA Medical Center, Charleston, SC 29401, United States of America.
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45
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Winzker M, Friese A, Koch U, Janning P, Ziegler S, Waldmann H. Development of a PDEδ‐Targeting PROTACs that Impair Lipid Metabolism. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201913904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Winzker
- Department of Chemical Biology Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Physiology Otto-Hahn-Straße 11 44227 Dortmund Germany
| | - Alexandra Friese
- Department of Chemical Biology Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Physiology Otto-Hahn-Straße 11 44227 Dortmund Germany
| | - Uwe Koch
- Lead Discovery Center GmbH Otto-Hahn-Straße 15 44227 Dortmund Germany
| | - Petra Janning
- Department of Chemical Biology Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Physiology Otto-Hahn-Straße 11 44227 Dortmund Germany
| | - Slava Ziegler
- Department of Chemical Biology Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Physiology Otto-Hahn-Straße 11 44227 Dortmund Germany
| | - Herbert Waldmann
- Department of Chemical Biology Max-Planck-Institute of Molecular Physiology Otto-Hahn-Straße 11 44227 Dortmund Germany
- Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Biology Technical University Dortmund Otto-Hahn-Straße 6 44227 Dortmund Germany
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46
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Siddiqui F, Alam C, Rosenqvist P, Ora M, Sabt A, Manoharan GB, Bindu L, Okutachi S, Catillon M, Taylor T, Abdelhafez OM, Lönnberg H, Stephen AG, Papageorgiou AC, Virta P, Abankwa D. PDE6D Inhibitors with a New Design Principle Selectively Block K-Ras Activity. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:832-842. [PMID: 31956834 PMCID: PMC6964506 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b03639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/09/2019] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The trafficking chaperone PDE6D (also referred to as PDEδ) has been nominated as a surrogate target for K-Ras4B (hereafter K-Ras). Arl2-assisted unloading of K-Ras from PDE6D in the perinuclear area is significant for correct K-Ras localization and therefore activity. However, the unloading mechanism also leads to the undesired ejection of PDE6D inhibitors. To counteract ejection, others have recently optimized inhibitors for picomolar affinities; however, cell penetration generally seems to remain an issue. To increase resilience against ejection, we engineered a "chemical spring" into prenyl-binding pocket inhibitors of PDE6D. Furthermore, cell penetration was improved by attaching a cell-penetration group, allowing us to arrive at micromolar in cellulo potencies in the first generation. Our model compounds, Deltaflexin-1 and -2, selectively disrupt K-Ras, but not H-Ras membrane organization. This selectivity profile is reflected in the antiproliferative activity on colorectal and breast cancer cells, as well as the ability to block stemness traits of lung and breast cancer cells. While our current model compounds still have a low in vitro potency, we expect that our modular and simple inhibitor redesign could significantly advance the development of pharmacologically more potent compounds against PDE6D and related targets, such as UNC119 in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farid
A. Siddiqui
- Turku
Bioscience Centre, University of Turku and
Åbo Akademi University, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Catharina Alam
- Turku
Bioscience Centre, University of Turku and
Åbo Akademi University, 20520 Turku, Finland
| | - Petja Rosenqvist
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Mikko Ora
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Ahmed Sabt
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland
- Chemistry
of Natural Compounds Department, National
Research Centre, Dokki, 12622 Giza, Egypt
| | - Ganesh babu Manoharan
- Cancer
Cell Biology and Drug Discovery Group, Life Sciences Research Unit, University of Luxembourg, 4362 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Lakshman Bindu
- NCI
RAS Initiative, Cancer Research Technology Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, 21702 Frederick, Maryland, United States
| | - Sunday Okutachi
- Cancer
Cell Biology and Drug Discovery Group, Life Sciences Research Unit, University of Luxembourg, 4362 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Marie Catillon
- Cancer
Cell Biology and Drug Discovery Group, Life Sciences Research Unit, University of Luxembourg, 4362 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
| | - Troy Taylor
- NCI
RAS Initiative, Cancer Research Technology Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, 21702 Frederick, Maryland, United States
| | - Omaima M. Abdelhafez
- Chemistry
of Natural Compounds Department, National
Research Centre, Dokki, 12622 Giza, Egypt
| | - Harri Lönnberg
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Andrew G. Stephen
- NCI
RAS Initiative, Cancer Research Technology Program, Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, 21702 Frederick, Maryland, United States
| | | | - Pasi Virta
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Turku, 20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Daniel Abankwa
- Turku
Bioscience Centre, University of Turku and
Åbo Akademi University, 20520 Turku, Finland
- Cancer
Cell Biology and Drug Discovery Group, Life Sciences Research Unit, University of Luxembourg, 4362 Esch-sur-Alzette, Luxembourg
- E-mail:
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47
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Pobbati AV, Mejuch T, Chakraborty S, Karatas H, Bharath SR, Guéret SM, Goy PA, Hahne G, Pahl A, Sievers S, Guccione E, Song H, Waldmann H, Hong W. Identification of Quinolinols as Activators of TEAD-Dependent Transcription. ACS Chem Biol 2019; 14:2909-2921. [PMID: 31742995 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.9b00786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The transcriptional co-regulators YAP (Yes-associated protein) and TAZ (transcriptional coactivator with PDZ-binding motif) are the vertebrate downstream effectors of the Hippo signaling pathway that controls various physiological and pathological processes. YAP and TAZ pair with the TEAD (TEA domain) family of transcription factors to initiate transcription. We previously identified a tractable pocket in TEADs, which has been physiologically shown to bind palmitate. Herein, a TEAD-palmitate interaction screen was developed to select small molecules occupying the palmitate-binding pocket (PBP) of TEADs. We show that quinolinols were TEAD-binding compounds that augment YAP/TAZ-TEAD activity, which was verified using TEAD reporter assay, RT-qPCR, and RNA-Seq analyses. Structure-activity relationship investigations uncovered the quinolinol substituents that are necessary for TEAD activation. We reveal a novel mechanism where quinolinols stabilize YAP/TAZ protein levels by occupying the PBP. The enhancement of YAP activity by quinolinols accelerates the in vivo wound closure in a mouse wound-healing model. Although small molecules that occupy the PBP have been shown to inhibit YAP/TAZ-TEAD activity, leveraging PBP to activate TEADs is a novel approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ajaybabu V. Pobbati
- Department of Multi-Modal Molecular (M3) Biology, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, 61 Biopolis Drive, 138673 Singapore
| | - Tom Mejuch
- Department of Chemical Biology, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Physiology, Otto-Hahn-Strasse 11, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Sayan Chakraborty
- Department of Multi-Modal Molecular (M3) Biology, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, 61 Biopolis Drive, 138673 Singapore
| | - Hacer Karatas
- Department of Chemical Biology, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Physiology, Otto-Hahn-Strasse 11, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Sakshibeedu R. Bharath
- Department of Multi-Modal Molecular (M3) Biology, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, 61 Biopolis Drive, 138673 Singapore
| | - Stéphanie M. Guéret
- AstraZeneca−Max Planck Institute Satellite Unit, Department of Chemical Biology, Otto-Hahn-Strasse 11, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
- Medicinal Chemistry, Research and Early Development Cardiovascular, Renal and Metabolism, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg 431 83, Sweden
| | - Pierre-Alexis Goy
- Department of Multi-Modal Molecular (M3) Biology, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, 61 Biopolis Drive, 138673 Singapore
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 119077 Singapore
| | - Gernot Hahne
- Department of Chemical Biology, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Physiology, Otto-Hahn-Strasse 11, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Axel Pahl
- Department of Chemical Biology, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Physiology, Otto-Hahn-Strasse 11, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Sonja Sievers
- Department of Chemical Biology, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Physiology, Otto-Hahn-Strasse 11, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Ernesto Guccione
- Department of Multi-Modal Molecular (M3) Biology, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, 61 Biopolis Drive, 138673 Singapore
| | - Haiwei Song
- Department of Multi-Modal Molecular (M3) Biology, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, 61 Biopolis Drive, 138673 Singapore
| | - Herbert Waldmann
- Department of Chemical Biology, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Physiology, Otto-Hahn-Strasse 11, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
- Technische Universität Dortmund, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Otto-Hahn-Strasse 6, 44227 Dortmund, Germany
| | - Wanjin Hong
- Department of Multi-Modal Molecular (M3) Biology, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, 61 Biopolis Drive, 138673 Singapore
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48
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Ye N, Xu Q, Li W, Wang P, Zhou J. Recent Advances in Developing K-Ras Plasma Membrane Localization Inhibitors. Curr Top Med Chem 2019; 19:2114-2127. [PMID: 31475899 DOI: 10.2174/1568026619666190902145116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Revised: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The Ras proteins play an important role in cell growth, differentiation, proliferation and survival by regulating diverse signaling pathways. Oncogenic mutant K-Ras is the most frequently mutated class of Ras superfamily that is highly prevalent in many human cancers. Despite intensive efforts to combat various K-Ras-mutant-driven cancers, no effective K-Ras-specific inhibitors have yet been approved for clinical use to date. Since K-Ras proteins must be associated to the plasma membrane for their function, targeting K-Ras plasma membrane localization represents a logical and potentially tractable therapeutic approach. Here, we summarize the recent advances in the development of K-Ras plasma membrane localization inhibitors including natural product-based inhibitors achieved from high throughput screening, fragment-based drug design, virtual screening, and drug repurposing as well as hit-to-lead optimizations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Ye
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases and College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China.,Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China.,Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, United States
| | - Qingfeng Xu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Wanwan Li
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu 215123, China
| | - Pingyuan Wang
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, United States
| | - Jia Zhou
- Chemical Biology Program, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, United States
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49
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Zhang Z, Shokat KM. Bifunctional Small-Molecule Ligands of K-Ras Induce Its Association with Immunophilin Proteins. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019; 58:16314-16319. [PMID: 31557383 PMCID: PMC6980260 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201910124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Here we report the design, synthesis, and characterization of bifunctional chemical ligands that induce the association of Ras with ubiquitously expressed immunophilin proteins such as FKBP12 and cyclophilin A. We show this approach is applicable to two distinct Ras ligand scaffolds, and that both the identity of the immunophilin ligand and the linker chemistry affect compound efficacy in biochemical and cellular contexts. These ligands bind to Ras in an immunophilin-dependent fashion and mediate the formation of tripartite complexes of Ras, immunophilin, and the ligand. The recruitment of cyclophilin A to GTP-bound Ras blocks its interaction with B-Raf in biochemical assays. Our study demonstrates the feasibility of ligand-induced association of Ras with intracellular proteins and suggests it as a promising therapeutic strategy for Ras-driven cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyang Zhang
- Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, 600 16th Street, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
| | - Kevan M Shokat
- Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, 600 16th Street, San Francisco, CA, 94143, USA
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50
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Zhang Z, Shokat KM. Bifunctional Small‐Molecule Ligands of K‐Ras Induce Its Association with Immunophilin Proteins. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201910124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ziyang Zhang
- Cellular and Molecular PharmacologyHoward Hughes Medical InstituteUniversity of California, San Francisco 600 16th Street San Francisco CA 94143 USA
| | - Kevan M. Shokat
- Cellular and Molecular PharmacologyHoward Hughes Medical InstituteUniversity of California, San Francisco 600 16th Street San Francisco CA 94143 USA
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