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Zhang X, Wang J, Zhang Y, Yang Z, Gao J, Gu Z. Synthesizing biomaterials in living organisms. Chem Soc Rev 2023; 52:8126-8164. [PMID: 37921625 DOI: 10.1039/d2cs00999d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
Living organisms fabricate biomacromolecules such as DNA, RNA, and proteins by the self-assembly process. The research on the mechanism of biomacromolecule formation also inspires the exploration of in vivo synthesized biomaterials. By elaborate design, artificial building blocks or precursors can self-assemble or polymerize into functional biomaterials within living organisms. In recent decades, these so-called in vivo synthesized biomaterials have achieved extensive applications in cell-fate manipulation, disease theranostics, bioanalysis, cellular surface engineering, and tissue regeneration. In this review, we classify strategies for in vivo synthesis into non-covalent, covalent, and genetic types. The development of these approaches is based on the chemical principles of supramolecular chemistry and synthetic chemistry, biological cues such as enzymes and microenvironments, and the means of synthetic biology. By summarizing the design principles in detail, some insights into the challenges and opportunities in this field are provided to enlighten further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangyang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Key Laboratory of Bioactive Materials, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, P. R. China.
| | - Junxia Wang
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Delivery Systems of Zhejiang Province, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.
- National Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Delivery and Release Systems, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Key Laboratory of Bioactive Materials, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, P. R. China.
| | - Zhimou Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Key Laboratory of Bioactive Materials, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, P. R. China.
| | - Jie Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Key Laboratory of Bioactive Materials, Ministry of Education, College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, P. R. China.
| | - Zhen Gu
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Delivery Systems of Zhejiang Province, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, China.
- Liangzhu Laboratory, Zhejiang University Medical Center, Hangzhou 311121, China
- Jinhua Institute of Zhejiang University, Jinhua 321299, China
- Department of General Surgery, Sir Run Run Shaw Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310016, China
- National Key Laboratory of Advanced Drug Delivery and Release Systems, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
- MOE Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization, Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
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2
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Yun J, Baldini M, Chowdhury R, Mukherjee A. Designing Protein-Based Probes for Sensing Biological Analytes with Magnetic Resonance Imaging. ANALYSIS & SENSING 2022; 2:e202200019. [PMID: 37409177 PMCID: PMC10321474 DOI: 10.1002/anse.202200019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
Genetically encoded sensors provide unique advantages for monitoring biological analytes with molecular and cellular-level specificity. While sensors derived from fluorescent proteins represent staple tools in biological imaging, these probes are limited to optically accessible preparations owing to physical curbs on light penetration. In contrast to optical methods, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may be used to noninvasively look inside intact organisms at any arbitrary depth and over large fields of view. These capabilities have spurred the development of innovative methods to connect MRI readouts with biological targets using protein-based probes that are in principle genetically encodable. Here, we highlight the state-of-the-art in MRI-based biomolecular sensors, focusing on their physical mechanisms, quantitative characteristics, and biological applications. We also describe how innovations in reporter gene technology are creating new opportunities to engineer MRI sensors that are sensitive to dilute biological targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason Yun
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Michelle Baldini
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Rochishnu Chowdhury
- Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
| | - Arnab Mukherjee
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Biomolecular Science and Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
- Center for BioEngineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA
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3
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Yavuz M, Ütkür M, Kehribar EŞ, Yağız E, Sarıtaş EÜ, Şeker UÖŞ. Engineered Bacteria with Genetic Circuits Accumulating Nanomagnets as MRI Contrast Agents. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2022; 18:e2200537. [PMID: 35567331 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202200537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Revised: 04/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The demand for highly efficient cancer diagnostic tools increases alongside the high cancer incidence nowadays. Moreover, there is an imperative need for novel cancer treatment therapies that lack the side effects of conventional treatment options. Developments in this aspect employ magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) for biomedical applications due to their stability, biocompatibility, and magnetic properties. Certain organisms, including many bacteria, can synthesize magnetic nanocrystals, which help their spatial orientation and survival by sensing the earth's geomagnetic field. This work aims to convert Escherichia coli to accumulate magnetite, which can further be coupled with drug delivery modules. The authors design magnetite accumulating bacterial machines using genetic circuitries hiring Mms6 with iron-binding activity and essential in magnetite crystal formation. The work demonstrates that the combinatorial effect of Mms6 with ferroxidase, iron transporter protein, and material binding peptide enhances the paramagnetic behavior of the cells in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measurements. Cellular machines are also engineered to display Mms6 peptide on the cell surface via an autotransporter protein that shows augmented MRI performance. The findings are promising for endowing a probiotic bacterium, able to accumulate magnetite intracellularly or extracellularly, serving as a theranostics agent for cancer diagnostics via MRI scanning and hyperthermia treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merve Yavuz
- UNAM- Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, National Nanotechnology Research Center, Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey
| | - Mustafa Ütkür
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey
- National Magnetic Resonance Research Center (UMRAM), Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey
| | - Ebru Şahin Kehribar
- UNAM- Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, National Nanotechnology Research Center, Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey
| | - Ecrin Yağız
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey
- National Magnetic Resonance Research Center (UMRAM), Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey
| | - Emine Ülkü Sarıtaş
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey
- National Magnetic Resonance Research Center (UMRAM), Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey
| | - Urartu Özgür Şafak Şeker
- UNAM- Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, National Nanotechnology Research Center, Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey
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4
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Singh AV, Chandrasekar V, Janapareddy P, Mathews DE, Laux P, Luch A, Yang Y, Garcia-Canibano B, Balakrishnan S, Abinahed J, Al Ansari A, Dakua SP. Emerging Application of Nanorobotics and Artificial Intelligence To Cross the BBB: Advances in Design, Controlled Maneuvering, and Targeting of the Barriers. ACS Chem Neurosci 2021; 12:1835-1853. [PMID: 34008957 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a prime focus for clinicians to maintain the homeostatic function in health and deliver the theranostics in brain cancer and number of neurological diseases. The structural hierarchy and in situ biochemical signaling of BBB neurovascular unit have been primary targets to recapitulate into the in vitro modules. The microengineered perfusion systems and development in 3D cellular and organoid culture have given a major thrust to BBB research for neuropharmacology. In this review, we focus on revisiting the nanoparticles based bimolecular engineering to enable them to maneuver, control, target, and deliver the theranostic payloads across cellular BBB as nanorobots or nanobots. Subsequently we provide a brief outline of specific case studies addressing the payload delivery in brain tumor and neurological disorders (e.g., Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, etc.). In addition, we also address the opportunities and challenges across the nanorobots' development and design. Finally, we address how computationally powered machine learning (ML) tools and artificial intelligence (AI) can be partnered with robotics to predict and design the next generation nanorobots to interact and deliver across the BBB without causing damage, toxicity, or malfunctions. The content of this review could be references to multidisciplinary science to clinicians, roboticists, chemists, and bioengineers involved in cutting-edge pharmaceutical design and BBB research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ajay Vikram Singh
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | | | - Poonam Janapareddy
- Department of Surgery, Hamad Medical Corporation (HMC), 3050 Doha, Qatar
| | - Divya Elsa Mathews
- Department of Surgery, Hamad Medical Corporation (HMC), 3050 Doha, Qatar
| | - Peter Laux
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Luch
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Max-Dohrn-Straße 8-10, 10589 Berlin, Germany
| | - Yin Yang
- College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University (HBKU), 24404 Doha, Qatar
| | | | | | - Julien Abinahed
- Department of Surgery, Hamad Medical Corporation (HMC), 3050 Doha, Qatar
| | - Abdulla Al Ansari
- Department of Surgery, Hamad Medical Corporation (HMC), 3050 Doha, Qatar
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Farhadi A, Sigmund F, Westmeyer GG, Shapiro MG. Genetically encodable materials for non-invasive biological imaging. NATURE MATERIALS 2021; 20:585-592. [PMID: 33526879 PMCID: PMC8606175 DOI: 10.1038/s41563-020-00883-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2020] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Many questions in basic biology and medicine require the ability to visualize the function of specific cells and molecules inside living organisms. In this context, technologies such as ultrasound, optoacoustics and magnetic resonance provide non-invasive imaging access to deep-tissue regions, as used in many laboratories and clinics to visualize anatomy and physiology. In addition, recent work has enabled these technologies to image the location and function of specific cells and molecules inside the body by coupling the physics of sound waves, nuclear spins and light absorption to unique protein-based materials. These materials, which include air-filled gas vesicles, capsid-like nanocompartments, pigment-producing enzymes and transmembrane transporters, enable new forms of biomolecular and cellular contrast. The ability of these protein-based contrast agents to be genetically encoded and produced by cells creates opportunities for unprecedented in vivo studies of cellular function, while their amenability to genetic engineering enables atomic-level design of their physical, chemical and biological properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arash Farhadi
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA
- Synthetic Biology Center, Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Felix Sigmund
- Department of Chemistry and TUM School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
- Institute for Synthetic Biomedicine, Helmholtz Zentrum Muenchen, Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Gil Gregor Westmeyer
- Department of Chemistry and TUM School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany.
- Institute for Synthetic Biomedicine, Helmholtz Zentrum Muenchen, Neuherberg, Germany.
| | - Mikhail G Shapiro
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
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6
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Buss MT, Ramesh P, English MA, Lee-Gosselin A, Shapiro MG. Spatial Control of Probiotic Bacteria in the Gastrointestinal Tract Assisted by Magnetic Particles. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2021; 33:e2007473. [PMID: 33709508 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202007473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Engineered probiotics have the potential to diagnose and treat a variety of gastrointestinal (GI) diseases. However, these exogenous bacterial agents have limited ability to effectively colonize specific regions of the GI tract due to a lack of external control over their localization and persistence. Magnetic fields are well suited to providing such control, since they freely penetrate biological tissues. However, they are difficult to apply with sufficient strength to directly manipulate magnetically labeled cells in deep tissue such as the GI tract. Here, it is demonstrated that a composite biomagnetic material consisting of microscale magnetic particles and probiotic bacteria, when orally administered and combined with an externally applied magnetic field, enables the trapping and retention of probiotic bacteria within the GI tract of mice. This technology improves the ability of these probiotic agents to accumulate at specific locations and stably colonize without antibiotic treatment. By enhancing the ability of GI-targeted probiotics to be at the right place at the right time, cellular localization assisted by magnetic particles (CLAMP) adds external physical control to an important emerging class of microbial theranostics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjorie T Buss
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA
| | - Pradeep Ramesh
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA
- Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA
| | - Max Atticus English
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA
| | - Audrey Lee-Gosselin
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA
| | - Mikhail G Shapiro
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, 91125, USA
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7
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Soto F, Karshalev E, Zhang F, Esteban Fernandez de Avila B, Nourhani A, Wang J. Smart Materials for Microrobots. Chem Rev 2021; 122:5365-5403. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Soto
- Department of Nanoengineering, Chemical Engineering Program and Contextual Robotics Institute, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Emil Karshalev
- Department of Nanoengineering, Chemical Engineering Program and Contextual Robotics Institute, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Fangyu Zhang
- Department of Nanoengineering, Chemical Engineering Program and Contextual Robotics Institute, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Berta Esteban Fernandez de Avila
- Department of Nanoengineering, Chemical Engineering Program and Contextual Robotics Institute, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
| | - Amir Nourhani
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Mathematics, Biology, Biomimicry Research and Innovation Center, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 44325, United States
| | - Joseph Wang
- Department of Nanoengineering, Chemical Engineering Program and Contextual Robotics Institute, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, United States
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8
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Zhao Y, Tang R. Improvement of organisms by biomimetic mineralization: A material incorporation strategy for biological modification. Acta Biomater 2021; 120:57-80. [PMID: 32629191 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2020.06.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Biomineralization, a bio-organism controlled mineral formation process, plays an important role in linking biological organisms and mineral materials in nature. Inspired by biomineralization, biomimetic mineralization is used as a bridge tool to integrate biological organisms and functional materials together, which can be beneficial for the development of diversified functional organism-material hybrids. In this review, recent progresses on the techniques of biomimetic mineralization for organism-material combinations are summarized and discussed. Based upon these techniques, the preparations and applications of virus-, prokaryotes-, and eukaryotes-material hybrids have been presented and they demonstrate the great potentials in the fields of vaccine improvement, cell protection, energy production, environmental and biomedical treatments, etc. We suggest that more researches about functional organism and material combination with more biocompatible techniques should be developed to improve the design and applications of specific organism-material hybrids. These rationally designed organism-material hybrids will shed light on the production of "live materials" with more advanced functions in future. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This review summaries the recent attempts on improving biological organisms by their integrations with functional materials, which can be achieved by biomimetic mineralization as the combination tool. The integrated materials, as the artificial shells or organelles, confer diversified functions on the enclosed organisms. The successful constructions of various virus-, prokaryotes-, and eukaryotes-material hybrids have demonstrated the great potentials of the material incorporation strategy in vaccine development, cancer treatment, biological photosynthesis and environment protection etc. The suggested challenges and perspectives indicate more inspirations for the future development of organism-material hybrids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yueqi Zhao
- Center for Biomaterials and Biopathways, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027 China
| | - Ruikang Tang
- Center for Biomaterials and Biopathways, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027 China; Qiushi Academy for Advanced Studies, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027 China.
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9
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Shapiro MG. Reporter Genes for Ultrasound and MRI. Mol Imaging 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-816386-3.00051-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
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10
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Aubry M, Wang WA, Guyodo Y, Delacou E, Guigner JM, Espeli O, Lebreton A, Guyot F, Gueroui Z. Engineering E. coli for Magnetic Control and the Spatial Localization of Functions. ACS Synth Biol 2020; 9:3030-3041. [PMID: 32927947 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.0c00286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The fast-developing field of synthetic biology enables broad applications of programmed microorganisms including the development of whole-cell biosensors, delivery vehicles for therapeutics, or diagnostic agents. However, the lack of spatial control required for localizing microbial functions could limit their use and induce their dilution leading to ineffective action or dissemination. To overcome this limitation, the integration of magnetic properties into living systems enables a contact-less and orthogonal method for spatiotemporal control. Here, we generated a magnetic-sensing Escherichia coli by driving the formation of iron-rich bodies into bacteria. We found that these bacteria could be spatially controlled by magnetic forces and sustained cell growth and division, by transmitting asymmetrically their magnetic properties to one daughter cell. We combined the spatial control of bacteria with genetically encoded-adhesion properties to achieve the magnetic capture of specific target bacteria as well as the spatial modulation of human cell invasions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Aubry
- P.A.S.T.E.U.R., Department of Chemistry, École Normale Supérieure, PSL University, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Wei-An Wang
- P.A.S.T.E.U.R., Department of Chemistry, École Normale Supérieure, PSL University, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 75005 Paris, France
- IMPMC, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Université, UMR CNRS 7590, Paris, 75005, France
| | - Yohan Guyodo
- Université de Paris, Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, CNRS, Paris, F-75005, France
| | - Eugénia Delacou
- P.A.S.T.E.U.R., Department of Chemistry, École Normale Supérieure, PSL University, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Jean-Michel Guigner
- IMPMC, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Université, UMR CNRS 7590, Paris, 75005, France
| | - Olivier Espeli
- CIRB-Collège de France, CNRS-UMR7241, INSERM U1050, PSL Research University, Paris, 75005, France
| | - Alice Lebreton
- Institut de biologie de l’ENS (IBENS), Département de biologie, École Normale Supérieure, CNRS, INSERM, PSL University, Paris, 75005, France
- INRAE, IBENS, Paris, 75005, France
| | - François Guyot
- IMPMC, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Sorbonne Université, UMR CNRS 7590, Paris, 75005, France
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), France
| | - Zoher Gueroui
- P.A.S.T.E.U.R., Department of Chemistry, École Normale Supérieure, PSL University, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 75005 Paris, France
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11
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Soto F, Wang J, Ahmed R, Demirci U. Medical Micro/Nanorobots in Precision Medicine. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2020; 7:2002203. [PMID: 33173743 PMCID: PMC7610261 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202002203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Revised: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Advances in medical robots promise to improve modern medicine and the quality of life. Miniaturization of these robotic platforms has led to numerous applications that leverages precision medicine. In this review, the current trends of medical micro and nanorobotics for therapy, surgery, diagnosis, and medical imaging are discussed. The use of micro and nanorobots in precision medicine still faces technical, regulatory, and market challenges for their widespread use in clinical settings. Nevertheless, recent translations from proof of concept to in vivo studies demonstrate their potential toward precision medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Soto
- Bio‐Acoustic MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) LaboratoryCanary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early DetectionDepartment of RadiologySchool of Medicine Stanford UniversityPalo AltoCA94304‐5427USA
- Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early DetectionDepartment of RadiologySchool of MedicineStanford UniversityPalo AltoCA94304‐5427USA
| | - Jie Wang
- Bio‐Acoustic MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) LaboratoryCanary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early DetectionDepartment of RadiologySchool of Medicine Stanford UniversityPalo AltoCA94304‐5427USA
- Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early DetectionDepartment of RadiologySchool of MedicineStanford UniversityPalo AltoCA94304‐5427USA
| | - Rajib Ahmed
- Bio‐Acoustic MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) LaboratoryCanary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early DetectionDepartment of RadiologySchool of Medicine Stanford UniversityPalo AltoCA94304‐5427USA
- Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early DetectionDepartment of RadiologySchool of MedicineStanford UniversityPalo AltoCA94304‐5427USA
| | - Utkan Demirci
- Bio‐Acoustic MEMS in Medicine (BAMM) LaboratoryCanary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early DetectionDepartment of RadiologySchool of Medicine Stanford UniversityPalo AltoCA94304‐5427USA
- Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early DetectionDepartment of RadiologySchool of MedicineStanford UniversityPalo AltoCA94304‐5427USA
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12
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Ozbakir HF, Anderson NT, Fan KC, Mukherjee A. Beyond the Green Fluorescent Protein: Biomolecular Reporters for Anaerobic and Deep-Tissue Imaging. Bioconjug Chem 2020; 31:293-302. [PMID: 31794658 PMCID: PMC7033020 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.9b00688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Fluorescence imaging represents cornerstone technology for studying biological function at the cellular and molecular levels. The technology's centerpiece is a prolific collection of genetic reporters based on the green fluorescent protein (GFP) and related analogs. More than two decades of protein engineering have endowed the GFP repertoire with an incredible assortment of fluorescent proteins, allowing scientists immense latitude in choosing reporters tailored to various cellular and environmental contexts. Nevertheless, GFP and derivative reporters have specific limitations that hinder their unrestricted use for molecular imaging. These challenges have inspired the development of new reporter proteins and imaging mechanisms. Here, we review how these developments are expanding the frontiers of reporter gene techniques to enable nondestructive studies of cell function in anaerobic environments and deep inside intact animals-two important biological contexts that are fundamentally incompatible with the use of GFP-based reporters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harun F. Ozbakir
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Nolan T. Anderson
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Kang-Ching Fan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Arnab Mukherjee
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Center for Bioengineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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