Regio- and Stereoselective 1,2-Carboboration of Ynamides with Aryldichloroboranes

Diversity-oriented synthesis of stereodefined tetrasubstituted alkenes via a modular alkyne gem-addition strategy

Stereocontrolled construction of tetrasubstituted olefins has been an attractive issue yet remains challenging for synthetic chemists. In this manuscript, alkynyl selenides, when treated with ArBCl2, are subject to an exclusive 1,1-carboboration, affording tetrasubstituted alkenes with excellent levels of E-selectivity. Detailed mechanistic studies, supported by DFT calculations, elucidates the role of selenium in this 1,1-addition process. Coupled with subsequent C-B and C-Se bond transformations, this 1,1-addition protocol constitutes a modular access to stereodefined all-carbon tetrasubstituted alkenes. The merit of this approach is demonstrated by programmed assembly of diverse functionalized multi-arylated alkenes, especially enabling the stereospecific synthesis of all six possible stereoisomers of tetraarylethene (TAE) derived from the random permutation of four distinct aryl substituents around the double bond. The diversity-oriented synthesis is further utilized to explore different TAE luminogenic properties and potential Se-containing antitumor lead compounds.

Intermediate Control: Unlocking Hitherto Unknown Reactivity and Selectivity in N-Conjugated Allenes and Alkynes

ConspectusControlling selectivity through manipulation of reaction intermediates remains one of the most enduring challenges in organic chemistry, providing novel solutions for selective C-C π-bond functionalization. This approach, guided by activation principles, provides an effective method for selective functional group installation, enabling direct synthesis of organic molecules that are inaccessible through conventional pathways. In particular, the selective functionalization of N-conjugated allenes and alkynes has emerged as a promising research focus, driven by advances in controlling reactive intermediates and activation strategies. In this regard, our group, alongside others, has established some new approaches that have emerged as a suitable platform for the synthesis of functionalized enamides. This Account reviews recent developments in the field, highlighting new modes of reactivity and selectivity, atom-economical functionalizations, and strategies for regio- and stereocontrol, while providing mechanistic insights into related transformations.Our study is systematically organized into two sections based on substrate type and chronological research progression. In the first section, we establish a platform by controlling allenamide-derived intermediates, enabling both allenamide-alkyne (AA) cross-coupling and a few novel electrophile-promoted hydrofunctionalization reactions. The unprecedented selectivity in Pd-catalyzed allenamide-alkyne cross-coupling is achieved through neighboring group chelation, with phosphine ligand selection controlling the reaction outcome. In parallel, the electrophile-promoted functionalizations─including haloalkynylation, hydrooxycarbonylation, hydrodifluoroalkylation, and intermolecular hydroamination─are achieved through strategic selection of electrophiles or their precursors.Additionally, our findings demonstrate how ynamides' reactivity toward both electrophiles and nucleophiles, controlled through activator modulation, expands the scope of accessible transformations. Key findings include: (1) chemoselective [2 + 2 + 2] annulation through efficient trapping of N-arylated nitrilium electrophiles by ynamides, (2) divergent C-H annulation of indole-derived vinylogous ynamides controlled by metal and ligand selection via intramolecular hydroarylation, (3) bromoalkynylation-enabled functional group migration through a novel 1,3-alkynyl shift.The final section explores how N-electron polarization in 1,3-enynes enables new chemoselectivity in metal-free inter- and intramolecular couplings with indole substrates. Our findings demonstrate that modulating N-electron conjugation within the enyne skeleton─through both linear and cross conjugation─can direct activation pathways and control product selectivity.This Account aims to stimulate broader research into the intermediate-controlled functionalization of activated π-systems. Future research directions include advanced activator design, novel functional group migration strategies, and deeper mechanistic studies to enable rational reaction development.

Solvent-Controlled, Atom-Economic, and Highly Regio- and Stereoselective Halo-Chalcogenations of Ynamides: Green Synthesis of Stereodefined Tetrasubstituted Alkenes Bearing Four Different Functional Groups

The synthesis of stereodefined tetrasubstituted alkenes bearing four different functional groups is challenging. Herein, we disclose a 100% atom-economic and highly regio- and stereoselective halo-chalcogenations, in particular, chlorosulfenylation, bromosulfenylation, chloroselenation, and bromoselenation, of ynamides in toluene at room temperature under an aerobic atmosphere for the synthesis of a wide variety of stereodefined tetrasubstituted alkenes bearing four different functional groups in excellent yields. Notably, all the reactions are highly efficient and furnished the desired products in excellent yield (average yield >96%) and stereoselectivity (Z/E = 90:10 to >99:1) within a short time (15-30 min). Interestingly, the high (Z)-stereoselectivity (syn-addition) is controlled by the solvent. The transformation does not require any catalyst, oxidizing or reducing reagent, or external energy. The products were obtained pure by evaporating the solvent after the reaction and washing the crude product with either pentane or ethanol (column-chromatography-free protocol). Moreover, the solvent toluene was recovered and reused in subsequent reactions, which makes the protocol highly sustainable. The protocol is efficiently scalable (96% yield) on a gram scale. Notably, the products were synthetically diversified to other new classes of stereodefined tetrasubstituted alkenes. Significantly, the green chemistry metrics of the protocol are found to be excellent.

N-Heterocyclic carbene catalytic 1,2-boron migrative acylation accelerated by photocatalysis

The transformation of organoboron compounds plays an important role in synthetic chemistry, and recent advancements in boron-migration reactions have garnered considerable attention. Here, we report an unprecedented 1,2-boron migrative acylation upon photocatalysis-facilitated N-heterocyclic carbene catalysis. The design of a redox-active boronic ester substrate, serving as an excellent β-boron radical precursor, is the linchpin to the success of this chemistry. With the established protocol, a wide spectrum of β-boryl ketones has been rapidly synthesized, which could further undergo various C─B bond transformations to give multifunctionalized products. The robustness of this catalytic strategy is underscored by its successful application in late-stage modification of drug-derived molecules and natural products. Preliminary mechanistic investigations, including several control experiments, photochemistry measurements, and computational studies, shed light on the catalytic radical reaction mechanism.

π-Extended 9b-Boraphenalenes: Synthesis, Structure, and Physical Properties

Boraphenalenes, compounds in which one carbon atom in the phenalenyl skeleton is replaced with a boron atom, have attracted attention for their solid-state and electronic structures; however, the construction of boraphenalene skeletons remains challenging because of the lack of suitable methods. Through this study, we showed that the tandem borylative cyclization of C3-symmetric dehydrobenzo[12]annulenes produces a new class of fully fused boron-atom-embedded polycyclic hydrocarbons possessing a 9b-boraphenalene skeleton. The obtained compounds exhibited high electron-accepting characteristics, and their two-step redox process was reversible in the reductive region, involving interconversion of 9b-boraphenalene between Hückel aromaticity and antiaromaticity. Notably, the benzo[b]fluorene-fused derivative exhibited a stepwise single-crystal-to-single-crystal (SCSC) phase transition triggered by thermal annealing. Intermolecular electron coupling calculation of the crystal structures suggested a significant improvement of charge transporting ability associated with the SCSC phase transition. Moreover, adequate photoconductivity was observed for the single crystals before and after the SCSC phase transition through flash photolysis-time-resolved microwave conductivity.

The Versatile and Strategic O-Carbamate Directed Metalation Group in the Synthesis of Aromatic Molecules: An Update

The aryl O-carbamate (ArOAm) group is among the strongest of the directed metalation groups (DMGs) in directed ortho metalation (DoM) chemistry, especially in the form Ar-OCONEt2. Since the last comprehensive review of metalation chemistry involving ArOAms (published more than 30 years ago), the field has expanded significantly. For example, it now encompasses new substrates, solvent systems, and metalating agents, while conditions have been developed enabling metalation of ArOAm to be conducted in a green and sustainable manner. The ArOAm group has also proven to be effective in the anionic ortho-Fries (AoF) rearrangement, Directed remote metalation (DreM), iterative DoM sequences, and DoM-halogen dance (HalD) synthetic strategies and has been transformed into a diverse range of functionalities and coupled with various groups through a range of cross-coupling (CC) strategies. Of ultimate value, the ArOAm group has demonstrated utility in the synthesis of a diverse range of bioactive and polycyclic aromatic compounds for various applications.

Redox- and Charge-State Dependent Trends in 5, 6, and 7-Membered Boron Heterocycles: A Neutral Ligand Coordination Chemistry Approach to Boracyclic Cations, Anions, and Radicals

ConspectusBoron heterocycles represent an important subset of heteroatom-incorporated rings, attracting attention from organic, inorganic, and materials chemists. The empty pz orbital at the boron center makes them stand out as quintessential Lewis acidic molecules, also serving as a means to modulate electronic structure and photophysical properties in a facile manner. As boracycles are ripe for extensive functionalization, they are used in catalysis, chemical biology, materials science, and continue to be explored as chemical synthons for conjugated materials and reagents. Neutral boron(III)-incorporated polycyclic molecules are some of the most studied types of boracycles, and understanding their redox transformations is important for applications relying on electron transfer and charge transport. While relevant redox species can often be electrochemically observed, it remains challenging to isolate and characterize boracycles where the boron center and/or polycyclic skeleton have been chemically reduced.We describe our recent work isolating 5-, 6-, and 7-membered boracyclic radicals, anions, and cations, focusing on stabilization strategies, ligand-mediated bonding situations, and reactivity. We present a versatile neutral ligand coordination chemistry approach that permits the transformation of boracycles from potent electrophiles to powerful nucleophilic heterocycles that facilitate diverse electron transfer and bond activation chemistry. Although there are a wide range of suitable stabilizing ligands, we have employed both diamino-N-heterocyclic carbenes (NHCs) and cyclic(alkyl)(amino) carbenes (CAACs), which led to boracycles with tunable electronic structures and aromaticity trends. We highlight successful isolation of borafluorene radicals and demonstrate their reversible redox behavior, undergoing oxidation to the cation or reduction to the anion. The borafluorene anion is a chemical synthon that has been used to prepare boryl main-group and transition-metal bonds, luminescent oxabora-spirocycles, borafluorenate-crown ethers, and CO-releasing molecules via carbon dioxide activation. We expanded to 6-membered boracycles and characterized neutral bis(NHC-supported 9-boraphenanthrene)s and the corresponding bis(CAAC-stabilized 9-boraphenanthrene) biradical. We detail the interconvertible multiredox states of boraphenalene, where the boraphenalenyl radical, anion, and cation mimic the charge-states of the all-hydrocarbon analogue. Reactivity studies of the boraphenalenyl anion displayed unusual nucleophilic reactivity at multiple sites on the periphery of the boraphenalenyl tricyclic scaffold. Reduced borepins, 7-membered boron containing heterocycles, have also been isolated. We used a stepwise one-pot synthesis combining the halo-borepin precursor, CAAC, and KC8 to afford the monomeric borepin radicals and anions. The π-system was extended to contain two borepin rings fused in a pentacyclic scaffold, which permitted isolation of diborepin biradicals and a diborepin containing a dibora-quinone core.Our goal is to provide a guide explaining the current structure-function trends and isolation strategies for redox-active boron-incorporated polycyclic molecules to initiate the rational design and use of these types of compounds across a vast chemical space.

Unveiling Three Interconvertible Redox States of Boraphenalene

Neutral 1-boraphenalene displays the isoelectronic structure of the phenalenyl carbocation and is expected to behave as an attractive organoboron multi-redox system. However, the isolation of new redox states have remained elusive even though the preparation of neutral boron(III)-containing phenalene compounds have been extensively studied. Herein, we have adopted an N-heterocyclic carbene ligand stabilization approach to achieve the first isolation of the stable and ambipolar 1-boraphenalenyl radical 1•. The 1-boraphenalenyl cation 1+ and anion 1- have also been electrochemically observed and chemically isolated, representing new redox forms of boraphenalene for the study of non-Kekulé polynuclear benzenoid molecules. Experimental and theoretical investigations suggest that the interconvertible three-redox-state species undergo reversible electronic structure modifications, which primarily take place on the polycyclic framework of the molecules, exhibiting atypical behavior compared to known donor-stabilized organoboron compounds. Initial reactivity studies, aromaticity evaluations, and photophysical studies show redox-state-dependent trends. While 1+ is luminescent in both the solution and solid states, 1• exhibits boron-centered reactivity and 1- undergoes substitution chemistry on the boraphenalenyl skeleton and serves as a single-electron transfer reductant.

Borylative transition metal-free couplings of vinyl iodides with various nucleophiles, alkenes or alkynes

Alkyl boronic esters are highly valuable compounds in organic chemistry and related fields due to their good stability and highly versatile reactivity. In this edge article, stereoselective borylative couplings of vinyl iodides with various nucleophiles, alkenes or alkynes is reported. These coupling reactions proceed through stereospecific hydroboration and subsequent stereospecific 1,2-metallate rearrangement. The cascades utilize readily available reagents and proceed without the need of a transition metal catalyst.

The reactivity of alkenyl boron reagents in catalytic reactions: recent advances and perspectives

Recent advances focusing on novel reactivity of alkenyl boron reagents in polar or radical pathways within catalytic reactions by employing transition metal catalysis, organocatalysis have been summarized and discussed.

Iterative Dual-Metal and Energy Transfer Catalysis Enables Stereodivergence in Alkyne Difunctionalization: Carboboration as Case Study

Stereochemically defined tetrasubstituted olefins are widespread structural elements of organic molecules and key intermediates in organic synthesis. However, flexible methods enabling stereodivergent access to E and Z isomers of fully substituted alkenes from a common precursor represent a significant challenge and are actively sought after in catalysis, especially those amenable to complex multifunctional molecules. Herein, we demonstrate that iterative dual-metal and energy transfer catalysis constitutes a unique platform for achieving stereodivergence in the difunctionalization of internal alkynes. The utility of this approach is showcased by the stereodivergent synthesis of both stereoisomers of tetrasubstituted β-boryl acrylates from internal alkynoates with excellent stereocontrol via sequential carboboration and photoisomerization. The reluctance of electron-deficient internal alkynes to undergo catalytic carboboration has been overcome through cooperative Cu/Pd-catalysis, whereas an Ir complex was identified as a versatile sensitizer that is able to photoisomerize the resulting sterically crowded alkenes. Mechanistic studies by means of quantum-chemical calculations, quenching experiments, and transient absorption spectroscopy have been applied to unveil the mechanism of both steps.

Decarboxylation of β-boryl NHPI esters enables radical 1,2-boron shift for the assembly of versatile organoborons

In recent years, numerous 1,2-R shift (R = aliphatic or aryl) based on tetracoordinate boron species have been well investigated. In the contrary, the corresponding radical migrations, especially 1,2-boryl radical shift for the construction of organoborons is still in its infancy. Given the paucity and significance of such strategies in boron chemistry, it is urgent to develop other efficient and alternative synthetic protocols to enrich these underdeveloped radical 1,2-boron migrations, before their fundamental potential applications could be fully explored at will. Herein, we have demonstrated a visible-light-induced photoredox neutral decarboxylative radical cross-coupling reaction, which undergoes a radical 1,2-boron shift to give a translocated C-radical for further capture of versatile radical acceptors. The mild reaction conditions, good functional-group tolerance, and broad β-boryl NHPI esters scope as well as versatile radical acceptors make this protocol applicable in modification of bioactive molecules. It can be expected that this methodology will be a very useful tool and an alternative strategy for the construction of primary organoborons via a novel radical 1,2-boron shift mode.

Uncatalyzed Carbometallation Involving Group 13 Elements: Carboboration and Carboalumination of Alkenes and Alkynes

Carbometallation of alkenes and alkynes are powerful carbon-carbon bond-forming reactions. The use of compounds containing bonds between carbon and group 13 elements, particularly boron and aluminum, are particularly attractive because of the versatility of subsequent transformations. Uncatalyzed carboboration and carboalumination represent less common classes of reactions. This Short Review discusses uncatalyzed carboboration and carboalumination reactions of alkenes and alkynes, including the reaction design and mechanism.

Facile preparation of organosilanes from benzylboronates and gem-diborylalkanes mediated by KOtBu

Methods to efficiently synthesize organosilanes are valuable in the fields of synthetic chemistry and materials science. During the past decades, boron conversion has become a generic and powerful approach for constructing carbon-carbon and other carbon-heteroatom bonds, but its potential application in forming carbon-silicon remains unexplored. Herein, we describe an alkoxide base-promoted deborylative silylation of benzylic organoboronates, geminal bis(boronates) or alkyltriboronates, allowing for straightforward access to synthetically valuable organosilanes. This selective deborylative methodology exhibits operational simplicity, broad substrate scope, excellent functional group compatibility and convenient scalability, providing an effective and complementary platform for the generation of diversified benzyl silanes and silylboronates. Detailed experimental results and calculated studies revealed an unusual mechanistic feature of this C-Si bond formation.

Atom-economic and stereoselective catalytic synthesis of fully substituted enol esters/carbonates of amides in acyclic systems enabled by boron Lewis acid catalysis

Carboacyloxylation of internal alkynes is emerging as a powerful and straightforward strategy for enol ester synthesis. However, the reported examples come with limitations, including the utilization of noble metal catalysts, the control of regio- and Z/E selectivity, and an application in the synthesis of enol carbonates. Herein, a boron Lewis acid-catalyzed intermolecular carboacyloxylation of ynamides with esters to access fully substituted acyclic enol esters in high yield with generally high Z/E selectivity (up to >96 : 4) is reported. Most importantly, readily available allylic carbonates are also compatible with this difunctionalization reaction, representing an atom-economic, catalytic and stereoselective protocol for the construction of acyclic β,β-disubstituted enol carbonates of amides for the first time. The application of the carboacyloxylation products to decarboxylative allylations provided a ready access to enantioenriched α-quaternary amides. Moreover, experimental studies and theoretical calculations were performed to illustrate the reaction mechanism and rationalize the stereochemistry.

Recent Advances in the Synthesis of Borinic Acid Derivatives

Borinic acids [R2B(OH)] and their chelate derivatives are a subclass of organoborane compounds used in cross-coupling reactions, catalysis, medicinal chemistry, polymer or optoelectronics materials. In this paper, we review the recent advances in the synthesis of diarylborinic acids and their four-coordinated analogs. The main strategies to build up borinic acids rely either on the addition of organometallic reagents to boranes (B(OR)3, BX3, aminoborane, arylboronic esters) or the reaction of triarylboranes with a ligand (diol, amino alcohol, etc.). After general practical considerations of borinic acids, an overview of the main synthetic methods, their scope and limitations is provided. We also discuss some mechanistic aspects.

Silylium-Catalyzed Regio- and Stereoselective Carbosilylation of Ynamides with Allylic Trimethylsilanes

The regio- and stereoselective carbosilylation of tosylynamides with allylic trimethylsilanes takes place under mild conditions in the presence of catalytic TMSNTf₂ or HNTf₂ to give (Z)-α-allyl-β-trimethylsilylenamides with good yields. Theoretical calculations show the activation of the C-C triple bond of the ynamides by the trimethylsilylium ion and formation of a β-trimethylsilylketenimonium cation. Further transformations of the products demonstrate the synthetic utility of this reaction.

1,2-Carboboration of Arylallenes by In Situ Generated Alkenylboranes for the Synthesis of 1,4-Dienes

We herein report a novel method for the coupling of unactivated alkynes and arylallenes, which relies on an unprecedented and regioselective 1,2-carboboration of the allene by an alkenylborane. The alkenylborane is conveniently prepared in situ by hydroboration of an alkyne with Piers' borane, i. e., HB(C6 F5 )2 . The boryl-substituted 1,4-dienes that are formed by this carboboration are well-suited for a subsequent Suzuki-Miyaura coupling with aryl iodides. This allowed us to develop a three-step, one-pot protocol for the synthesis of aryl-substituted 1,4-dienes. The generality of the reaction was demonstrated by the synthesis of twenty dienes with modular variations of all three reaction partners. The mechanism of the new 1,2-carboboration was investigated using dispersion corrected double-hybrid DFT computations that allowed us to rationalize the chemo- and regioselectivity of this key step.

Boron Lewis Acid Catalyzed Intermolecular trans-Hydroarylation of Ynamides with Hydroxyarenes

An atom-economic protocol for the efficient and highly chemo- and stereoselective trans-hydroarylation of ynamides with hydroxyarenes catalyzed by B(C₆F₅)₃ has been developed. Use of readily available starting materials, low catalyst loading, mild reaction conditions, a broad substrate scope, ease of scale-up, and versatile functionalizations of the enamide products make this approach very practical and attractive.

Palladium-Catalyzed Silylcyanation of Ynamides: Regio- and Stereoselective Access to Tetrasubstituted 3-Silyl-2-Aminoacrylonitriles

The palladium-catalyzed silylcyanation of ynamides is described. This reaction is fully regioselective, delivering tetrasubstituted 2-aminoacrylonitriles derivatives exclusively. Unexpectedly, the nature (aryl or alkyl) of the substituent located at the β-position of the ynamide directly controls the stereoselectivity. The reaction tolerates a number of functional groups and can be considered as the first general access to fully substituted 2-aminoacrylonitriles. Given the singular reactivity observed, a computational study was performed to shed light on the mechanism of this intriguing transformation. Relying on the specific reactivity of the newly installed vinylsilane functionality, the scope of 2-aminoacrylonitriles has been enlarged by postfunctionalization.

Palladium-Catalyzed Regioselective Arylalkenylation of Ynamides

A cationic palladium-catalyzed arylalkenylation of ynamides is presented. The putative keteniminium arylpalladium intermediate likely dictates the regioselective carbopalladation of the ynamide to form a vinylpalladium species. The capture of this complex by the olefin yields linear conjugated β-alkenyl aminodienes (especially with trans selectivity). The transformation features a broad scope with labile functional group tolerance and makes 42 unusual molecular scaffolds with structural diversity. DFT studies provide valuable insights into the reaction mechanism.

Regio- and Stereoselective 1,2-Carboboration of Ynamides with Aryldichloroboranes

Catalyst‐free 1,2‐carboboration of ynamides is presented. Readily available aryldichloroboranes react with alkyl‐ or aryl‐substituted ynamides in high yields with complete regio‐ and stereoselectivity to valuable β‐boryl‐β‐alkyl/aryl α‐aryl substituted enamides which belong to the class of trisubstituted alkenylboronates. The 1,2‐carboboration reaction is experimentally easy to conduct, shows high functional group tolerance and broad substrate scope. Gram‐scale reactions and diverse synthetic transformations convincingly demonstrate the synthetic potential of this method. The reaction can also be used to access 1‐boraphenalenes, a class of boron‐doped polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.