1
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Liu S, Zhang C, Han Z, Huang H, Sun J. Organocatalytic enantio- and diastereoselective assembly of cyclopropane-incorporated polycyclic molecules via isobenzopyrylium ions. Chem Sci 2024; 15:d4sc03746d. [PMID: 39246368 PMCID: PMC11378009 DOI: 10.1039/d4sc03746d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 08/15/2024] [Indexed: 09/10/2024] Open
Abstract
A highly enantio- and diastereoselective organocatalytic formation of cyclopropanes embedded in a complex bridged polycyclic architecture is disclosed. In the presence of a chiral phosphoric acid catalyst, this reaction generates four new stereogenic centers and three new C-C bonds efficiently from isochromene acetals and vinylboronic acids under mild conditions. Different from conventional asymmetric cyclopropanation strategies, this process does not involve carbenes or carbenoids. The complex products can serve as precursors to useful homoenolate equivalents. Mechanistically, DFT studies provided insights into the key transition states of the enantiodetermining [4 + 2] cycloaddition, in which the enantioselectivity is induced by the chiral phosphate counter anion of the isobenzopyrylium intermediate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuxuan Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Catalytic Materials & Technology, School of Petrochemical Engineering, Changzhou University Changzhou China
- Department of Chemistry and the Hong Kong Branch of Chinese National Engineering Research Centre for Tissue Restoration & Reconstruction, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology Clear Water Bay Kowloon Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Chaoshen Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and the Hong Kong Branch of Chinese National Engineering Research Centre for Tissue Restoration & Reconstruction, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology Clear Water Bay Kowloon Hong Kong SAR China
| | - Zhengyu Han
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Catalytic Materials & Technology, School of Petrochemical Engineering, Changzhou University Changzhou China
| | - Hai Huang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Catalytic Materials & Technology, School of Petrochemical Engineering, Changzhou University Changzhou China
| | - Jianwei Sun
- Department of Chemistry and the Hong Kong Branch of Chinese National Engineering Research Centre for Tissue Restoration & Reconstruction, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology Clear Water Bay Kowloon Hong Kong SAR China
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2
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Yu MZ, Yuan Y, Li ZJ, Kunthic T, Wang HX, Xu C, Xiang Z. An Artificial Enzyme for Asymmetric Nitrocyclopropanation of α,β-Unsaturated Aldehydes-Design and Evolution. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202401635. [PMID: 38597773 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202401635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 03/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
The introduction of an abiological catalytic group into the binding pocket of a protein host allows for the expansion of enzyme chemistries. Here, we report the generation of an artificial enzyme by genetic encoding of a non-canonical amino acid that contains a secondary amine side chain. The non-canonical amino acid and the binding pocket function synergistically to catalyze the asymmetric nitrocyclopropanation of α,β-unsaturated aldehydes by the iminium activation mechanism. The designer enzyme was evolved to an optimal variant that catalyzes the reaction at high conversions with high diastereo- and enantioselectivity. This work demonstrates the application of genetic code expansion in enzyme design and expands the scope of enzyme-catalyzed abiological reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Zhu Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Genomics, AI for Science (AI4S) Preferred Program, School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, University Town of Shenzhen, Nanshan District, 518055, Shenzhen, P. R. China
| | - Ye Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Genomics, AI for Science (AI4S) Preferred Program, School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, University Town of Shenzhen, Nanshan District, 518055, Shenzhen, P. R. China
| | - Zhen-Jie Li
- Shenzhen Grubbs Institute and Department of Chemistry, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Southern University of Science and Technology Nanshan District, 518055, Shenzhen, P. R. China
| | - Thittaya Kunthic
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Genomics, AI for Science (AI4S) Preferred Program, School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, University Town of Shenzhen, Nanshan District, 518055, Shenzhen, P. R. China
| | - He-Xiang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Genomics, AI for Science (AI4S) Preferred Program, School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, University Town of Shenzhen, Nanshan District, 518055, Shenzhen, P. R. China
| | - Chen Xu
- Shenzhen Grubbs Institute and Department of Chemistry, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Catalysis, Southern University of Science and Technology Nanshan District, 518055, Shenzhen, P. R. China
| | - Zheng Xiang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Genomics, AI for Science (AI4S) Preferred Program, School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, University Town of Shenzhen, Nanshan District, 518055, Shenzhen, P. R. China
- Institute of Chemical Biology, Shenzhen Bay Laboratory Gaoke Innovation Center, Guangqiao Road, Guangming District, 518132, Shenzhen, P. R. China
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3
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Thorpe T, Marshall JR, Turner NJ. Multifunctional Biocatalysts for Organic Synthesis. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:7876-7884. [PMID: 38489244 PMCID: PMC10979396 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c09542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
Biocatalysis is becoming an indispensable tool in organic synthesis due to high enzymatic catalytic efficiency as well as exquisite chemo- and stereoselectivity. Some biocatalysts display great promiscuity including a broad substrate scope as well as the ability to catalyze more than one type of transformation. These promiscuous activities have been applied individually to efficiently access numerous valuable target molecules. However, systems in which enzymes possessing multiple different catalytic activities are applied in the synthesis are less well developed. Such multifunctional biocatalysts (MFBs) would simplify chemical synthesis by reducing the number of operational steps and enzyme count, as well as simplifying the sequence space that needs to be engineered to develop an efficient biocatalyst. In this Perspective, we highlight recently reported MFBs focusing on their synthetic utility and mechanism. We also offer insight into their origin as well as comment on potential strategies for their discovery and engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas
W. Thorpe
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Manchester,
Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, United Kingdom, M1
7DN
| | - James R. Marshall
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Manchester,
Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, United Kingdom, M1
7DN
| | - Nicholas J. Turner
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Manchester,
Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, 131 Princess Street, Manchester, United Kingdom, M1
7DN
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4
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Yu MZ, Chen KY, Zhang YB, Zhang CX, Xiang Z. Enantioselective conjugate addition of malonates to α,β-unsaturated aldehydes catalysed by 4-oxalocrotonate tautomerase. Org Biomol Chem 2023; 21:2086-2090. [PMID: 36806856 DOI: 10.1039/d3ob00111c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
The enantioselective conjugate addition of malonates to α,β-unsaturated aldehydes catalysed by 4-oxalocrotonate tautomerase is described. High conversions, high enantioselectivities, and good isolation yields were achieved for a range of substrates. We further completed a four-step synthesis of the antidepressant (+)-femoxetine by utilizing this reaction and an enzymatic reductive amination reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Zhu Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Genomics, School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen 518055, China.
| | - Kai-Yue Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Genomics, School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen 518055, China.
| | - Yi-Bin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Genomics, School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen 518055, China.
| | - Chang-Xuan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Genomics, School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen 518055, China.
| | - Zheng Xiang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Oncogenomics, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Genomics, School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen 518055, China. .,Institute of Chemical Biology, Shenzhen Bay Laboratory, Shenzhen 518132, China.,AI for Science (AI4S) Preferred Program, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen 518055, China
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5
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Guo H, Sun N, Guo J, Zhou TP, Tang L, Zhang W, Deng Y, Liao RZ, Wu Y, Wu G, Zhong F. Expanding the Promiscuity of a Copper-Dependent Oxidase for Enantioselective Cross-Coupling of Indoles. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202219034. [PMID: 36789864 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202219034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023]
Abstract
Herein, we disclose the highly enantioselective oxidative cross-coupling of 3-hydroxyindole esters with various nucleophilic partners as catalyzed by copper efflux oxidase. The biocatalytic transformation delivers functionalized 2,2-disubstituted indolin-3-ones with excellent optical purity (90-99 % ee), which exhibited anticancer activity against MCF-7 cell lines, as shown by preliminary biological evaluation. Mechanistic studies and molecular docking results suggest the formation of a phenoxyl radical and enantiocontrol facilitated by a suited enzyme chiral pocket. This study is significant with regard to expanding the catalytic repertoire of natural multicopper oxidases as well as enlarging the synthetic toolbox for sustainable asymmetric oxidative coupling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Guo
- Hubei Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials and Medical Protective Materials, Hubei Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry & Materia Medica, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Luoyu Road 1037, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Ningning Sun
- Hubei Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials and Medical Protective Materials, Hubei Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry & Materia Medica, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Luoyu Road 1037, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Juan Guo
- Hubei Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials and Medical Protective Materials, Hubei Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry & Materia Medica, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Luoyu Road 1037, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Tai-Ping Zhou
- Hubei Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials and Medical Protective Materials, Hubei Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry & Materia Medica, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Luoyu Road 1037, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Langyu Tang
- Hubei Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials and Medical Protective Materials, Hubei Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry & Materia Medica, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Luoyu Road 1037, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Wentao Zhang
- Hubei Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials and Medical Protective Materials, Hubei Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry & Materia Medica, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Luoyu Road 1037, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Yaming Deng
- Hubei Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials and Medical Protective Materials, Hubei Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry & Materia Medica, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Luoyu Road 1037, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Rong-Zhen Liao
- Hubei Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials and Medical Protective Materials, Hubei Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry & Materia Medica, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Luoyu Road 1037, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Yuzhou Wu
- Hubei Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials and Medical Protective Materials, Hubei Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry & Materia Medica, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Luoyu Road 1037, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Guojiao Wu
- Hubei Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials and Medical Protective Materials, Hubei Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry & Materia Medica, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Luoyu Road 1037, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Fangrui Zhong
- Hubei Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials and Medical Protective Materials, Hubei Key Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry & Materia Medica, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology (HUST), Luoyu Road 1037, Wuhan, 430074, China
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6
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Tseliou V, Faraone A, Kqiku L, Vilím J, Simionato G, Melchiorre P. Enantioselective Biocascade Catalysis with a Single Multifunctional Enzyme. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202212176. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.202212176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vasilis Tseliou
- ICIQ, Institute of Chemical Research of Catalonia The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology Avenida Països Catalans 16 43007 Tarragona Spain
| | - Adriana Faraone
- University Rovira i Virgili 43007 Tarragona Spain
- ICIQ, Institute of Chemical Research of Catalonia The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology Avenida Països Catalans 16 43007 Tarragona Spain
| | - Laura Kqiku
- University Rovira i Virgili 43007 Tarragona Spain
- ICIQ, Institute of Chemical Research of Catalonia The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology Avenida Països Catalans 16 43007 Tarragona Spain
| | - Jan Vilím
- ICIQ, Institute of Chemical Research of Catalonia The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology Avenida Països Catalans 16 43007 Tarragona Spain
| | - Gianluca Simionato
- ICIQ, Institute of Chemical Research of Catalonia The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology Avenida Països Catalans 16 43007 Tarragona Spain
| | - Paolo Melchiorre
- ICREA Passeig Lluís Companys 23 08010 Barcelona Spain
- ICIQ, Institute of Chemical Research of Catalonia The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology Avenida Països Catalans 16 43007 Tarragona Spain
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7
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Tseliou V, Faraone A, Kqiku L, Vilím J, Simionato G, Melchiorre P. Enantioselective Biocascade Catalysis with a Single Multifunctional Enzyme. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202212176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vasilis Tseliou
- ICIQ: Institut Catala d'Investigacio Quimica Melchiorre group 43007 Tarragona SPAIN
| | - Adriana Faraone
- ICIQ: Institut Catala d'Investigacio Quimica Melchiorre group SPAIN
| | - Laura Kqiku
- ICIQ: Institut Catala d'Investigacio Quimica Melchiorre group SPAIN
| | - Jan Vilím
- ICIQ: Institut Catala d'Investigacio Quimica Melchiorre group SPAIN
| | | | - Paolo Melchiorre
- Institute of Chemical Research of Catalonia (ICIQ) ICIQ Av. Països Catalans 16 43007 Tarragona SPAIN
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8
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Abstract
The application of biocatalysis in conquering challenging synthesis requires the constant input of new enzymes. Developing novel biocatalysts by absorbing catalysis modes from synthetic chemistry has yielded fruitful new-to-nature enzymes. Organocatalysis was originally bio-inspired and has become the third pillar of asymmetric catalysis. Transferring organocatalytic reactions back to enzyme platforms is a promising approach for biocatalyst creation. Herein, we summarize recent developments in the design of novel biocatalysts that adopt iminium catalysis, a fundamental branch in organocatalysis. By repurposing existing enzymes or constructing artificial enzymes, various biocatalysts for iminium catalysis have been created and optimized via protein engineering to promote valuable abiological transformations. Recent advances in iminium biocatalysis illustrate the power of combining chemomimetic biocatalyst design and directed evolution to generate useful new-to-nature enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangcai Xu
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical BiologyGroningen Research Institute of PharmacyUniversity of GroningenAntonius Deusinglaan 19713AV GroningenThe Netherlands
| | - Gerrit J. Poelarends
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical BiologyGroningen Research Institute of PharmacyUniversity of GroningenAntonius Deusinglaan 19713AV GroningenThe Netherlands
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9
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Xu G, Poelarends GJ. Unlocking New Reactivities in Enzymes by Iminium Catalysis. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202203613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Guangcai Xu
- University of Groningen: Rijksuniversiteit Groningen Chemical and Pharmaceutical Biology NETHERLANDS
| | - Gerrit J. Poelarends
- University of Groningen Chemical and Pharmaceutical Biology Antonius Deusinglaan 1 9713 AV Groningen NETHERLANDS
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10
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Xu G, Kunzendorf A, Crotti M, Rozeboom HJ, Thunnissen AWH, Poelarends GJ. Gene Fusion and Directed Evolution to Break Structural Symmetry and Boost Catalysis by an Oligomeric C−C Bond‐Forming Enzyme. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202113970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Guangcai Xu
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Biology Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy University of Groningen Antonius Deusinglaan 1 9713 AV Groningen The Netherlands
| | - Andreas Kunzendorf
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Biology Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy University of Groningen Antonius Deusinglaan 1 9713 AV Groningen The Netherlands
| | - Michele Crotti
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Biology Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy University of Groningen Antonius Deusinglaan 1 9713 AV Groningen The Netherlands
| | - Henriëtte J. Rozeboom
- Molecular Enzymology Group Groningen Institute of Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology University of Groningen Nijenborgh 4 9747 AG Groningen The Netherlands
| | - Andy‐Mark W. H. Thunnissen
- Molecular Enzymology Group Groningen Institute of Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology University of Groningen Nijenborgh 4 9747 AG Groningen The Netherlands
| | - Gerrit J. Poelarends
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Biology Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy University of Groningen Antonius Deusinglaan 1 9713 AV Groningen The Netherlands
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11
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Xu G, Kunzendorf A, Crotti M, Rozeboom HJ, Thunnissen AMWH, Poelarends GJ. Gene Fusion and Directed Evolution to Break Structural Symmetry and Boost Catalysis by an Oligomeric C-C Bond-Forming Enzyme. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 61:e202113970. [PMID: 34890491 PMCID: PMC9306753 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202113970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Gene duplication and fusion are among the primary natural processes that generate new proteins from simpler ancestors. Here we adopted this strategy to evolve a promiscuous homohexameric 4-oxalocrotonate tautomerase (4-OT) into an efficient biocatalyst for enantioselective Michael reactions. We first designed a tandem-fused 4-OT to allow independent sequence diversification of adjacent subunits by directed evolution. This fused 4-OT was then subjected to eleven rounds of directed evolution to give variant 4-OT(F11), which showed an up to 320-fold enhanced activity for the Michael addition of nitromethane to cinnamaldehydes. Crystallographic analysis revealed that 4-OT(F11) has an unusual asymmetric trimeric architecture in which one of the monomers is flipped 180° relative to the others. This gene duplication and fusion strategy to break structural symmetry is likely to become an indispensable asset of the enzyme engineering toolbox, finding wide use in engineering oligomeric proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guangcai Xu
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Biology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Andreas Kunzendorf
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Biology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Michele Crotti
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Biology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Henriëtte J Rozeboom
- Molecular Enzymology Group, Groningen Institute of Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Andy-Mark W H Thunnissen
- Molecular Enzymology Group, Groningen Institute of Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Gerrit J Poelarends
- Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Biology, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy, University of Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV, Groningen, The Netherlands
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