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De Bon F, Fantin M, Pereira VA, Lourenço Bernardino TJ, Serra AC, Matyjaszewski K, Coelho JFJ. Electrochemically Mediated Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization Driven by Alternating Current. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024:e202406484. [PMID: 38647172 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202406484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024]
Abstract
Alternating current (AC) and pulsed electrolysis are gaining traction in electro(organic) synthesis due to their advantageous characteristics. We employed AC electrolysis in electrochemically mediated Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization (eATRP) to facilitate the regeneration of the activator CuI complex on Cu0 electrodes. Additionally, Cu0 served as a slow supplemental activator and reducing agent (SARA ATRP), enabling the activation of alkyl halides and the regeneration of the CuI activator through a comproportionation reaction. We harnessed the distinct properties of Cu0 dual regeneration, both chemical and electrochemical, by employing sinusoidal, triangular, and square-wave AC electrolysis alongside some of the most active ATRP catalysts available. Compared to linear waveform (DC electrolysis) or SARA ATRP (without electrolysis), pulsed and AC electrolysis facilitated slightly faster and more controlled polymerizations of acrylates. The same AC electrolysis conditions could successfully polymerize eleven different monomers across different mediums, from water to bulk. Moreover, it proved effective across a spectrum of catalyst activity, from low-activity Cu/2,2-bipyridine to highly active Cu complexes with substituted tripodal amine ligands. Chain extension experiments confirmed the high chain-end fidelity of the produced polymers, yielding functional and high molecular-weight block copolymers. SEM analysis indicated the robustness of the Cu0 electrodes, sustaining at least 15 consecutive polymerizations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco De Bon
- Centre for Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes (CEMMPRE), ARISE, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Coimbra, Rua Sílvio Lima, Pólo II, 3030-790, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Marco Fantin
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Padova, Via Marzolo 1, I-35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Vanessa A Pereira
- Centre for Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes (CEMMPRE), ARISE, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Coimbra, Rua Sílvio Lima, Pólo II, 3030-790, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Teresa J Lourenço Bernardino
- Centre for Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes (CEMMPRE), ARISE, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Coimbra, Rua Sílvio Lima, Pólo II, 3030-790, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Armenio C Serra
- Centre for Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes (CEMMPRE), ARISE, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Coimbra, Rua Sílvio Lima, Pólo II, 3030-790, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Krzysztof Matyjaszewski
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Ave, 15213, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Jorge F J Coelho
- Centre for Mechanical Engineering, Materials and Processes (CEMMPRE), ARISE, Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Coimbra, Rua Sílvio Lima, Pólo II, 3030-790, Coimbra, Portugal
- IPN, Instituto Pedro Nunes, Associação para a Inovação e Desenvolvimento em Ciência e Tecnologia, Rua Pedro Nunes, 3030-199, Coimbra, Portugal
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2
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Zeng L, Wang J, Wang D, Yi H, Lei A. Comprehensive Comparisons between Directing and Alternating Current Electrolysis in Organic Synthesis. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202309620. [PMID: 37606535 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202309620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2023] [Revised: 08/20/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/23/2023]
Abstract
Organic electrosynthesis has consistently aroused significant interest within both academic and industrial spheres. Despite the considerable progress achieved in this field, the majority of electrochemical transformations have been conducted through the utilization of direct-current (DC) electricity. In contrast, the application of alternating current (AC), characterized by its polarity-alternating nature, remains in its infancy within the sphere of organic synthesis, primarily due to the absence of a comprehensive theoretical framework. This minireview offers an overview of recent advancements in AC-driven organic transformations and seeks to elucidate the differences between DC and AC electrolytic methodologies by probing into their underlying physical principles. These differences encompass the ability of AC to preclude the deposition of metal catalysts, the precision in modulating oxidation and reduction intensities, and the mitigation of mass transfer processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Zeng
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
| | - Jianxing Wang
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
| | - Daoxin Wang
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, P. R. China
| | - Hong Yi
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
| | - Aiwen Lei
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, 330022, P. R. China
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3
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Wang Y, Dana S, Long H, Xu Y, Li Y, Kaplaneris N, Ackermann L. Electrochemical Late-Stage Functionalization. Chem Rev 2023; 123:11269-11335. [PMID: 37751573 PMCID: PMC10571048 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
Late-stage functionalization (LSF) constitutes a powerful strategy for the assembly or diversification of novel molecular entities with improved physicochemical or biological activities. LSF can thus greatly accelerate the development of medicinally relevant compounds, crop protecting agents, and functional materials. Electrochemical molecular synthesis has emerged as an environmentally friendly platform for the transformation of organic compounds. Over the past decade, electrochemical late-stage functionalization (eLSF) has gained major momentum, which is summarized herein up to February 2023.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Yang Xu
- Institut für Organische
und Biomolekulare Chemie and Wöhler Research Institute for
Sustainable Chemistry (WISCh), Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Yanjun Li
- Institut für Organische
und Biomolekulare Chemie and Wöhler Research Institute for
Sustainable Chemistry (WISCh), Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Nikolaos Kaplaneris
- Institut für Organische
und Biomolekulare Chemie and Wöhler Research Institute for
Sustainable Chemistry (WISCh), Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen 37077, Germany
| | - Lutz Ackermann
- Institut für Organische
und Biomolekulare Chemie and Wöhler Research Institute for
Sustainable Chemistry (WISCh), Georg-August-Universität, Göttingen 37077, Germany
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4
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Rodrigo S, Hazra A, Mahajan JP, Nguyen HM, Luo L. Overcoming the Potential Window-Limited Functional Group Compatibility by Alternating Current Electrolysis. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:21851-21859. [PMID: 37747918 PMCID: PMC10774024 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c05802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
The functional group compatibility of an electrosynthetic method is typically limited by its potential reaction window. Here, we report that alternating current (AC) electrolysis can overcome such potential window-limited functional group compatibility. Using alkene heterodifunctionalization as a model system, we design and demonstrate a series of AC-driven reactions that add two functional groups sequentially and separately under the cathodic and anodic pulses, including chloro- and bromotrilfuoromethylation as well as chlorosulfonylation. We discovered that the oscillating redox environment during AC electrolysis allows the regeneration of the redox-active functional groups after their oxidation or reduction in the preceding step. As a result, even though redox labile functional groups such as pyrrole, quinone, and aryl thioether fall in the reaction potential window, they are tolerated under AC electrolysis conditions, leading to synthetically useful yields. The cyclic voltammetric study has confirmed that the product yield is limited by the extent of starting material regeneration during the redox cycling. Our findings open a new avenue for improving functional group compatibility in electrosynthesis and show the possibility of predicting the product yield under AC electrolysis from voltammogram features.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sachini Rodrigo
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Atanu Hazra
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Jyoti P Mahajan
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Hien M Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Long Luo
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
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5
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Wan Q, Chen K, Dong X, Ruan X, Yi H, Chen S. Elucidating the Underlying Reactivities of Alternating Current Electrosynthesis by Time-Resolved Mapping of Short-Lived Reactive Intermediates. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202306460. [PMID: 37593930 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202306460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023]
Abstract
Alternating current (AC) electrolysis is an emerging field in synthetic chemistry, however its mechanistic studies are challenged by the effective characterization of the elusive intermediate processes. Herein, we develop an operando electrochemical mass spectrometry platform that allows time-resolved mapping of stepwise electrosynthetic reactive intermediates in both direct current and alternating current modes. By dissecting the key intermediate processes of electrochemical functionalization of arylamines, the unique reactivities of AC electrosynthesis, including minimizing the over-oxidation/reduction through the inverse process, and enabling effective reaction of short-lived intermediates generated by oxidation and reduction in paired electrolysis, were evidenced and verified. Notably, the controlled kinetics of reactive N-centered radical intermediates in multistep sequential AC electrosynthesis to minimize the competing reactions was discovered. Overall, this work provides direct evidence for the mechanism of AC electrolysis, and clarifies the underlying reasons for its high efficiency, which will benefit the rational design of AC electrosynthetic reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiongqiong Wan
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
| | - Kaixiang Chen
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
| | - Xin Dong
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
| | - Xianqin Ruan
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
| | - Hong Yi
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
| | - Suming Chen
- The Institute for Advanced Studies (IAS), Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
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6
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Zeng W, Zhang X, Zhang Y, Xiao S, Tang Y, Xie P, Loh TP. Organophotoredox-Catalyzed Intermolecular Formal Grob Fragmentation of Cyclic Alcohols with Activated Allylic Acetates. Org Lett 2023; 25:5869-5874. [PMID: 37515785 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.3c02129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/31/2023]
Abstract
We have developed an efficient method that employs organophotoredox-catalyzed relay Grob fragmentation to facilitate the smooth ring-opening allylation of cyclic alcohols in an environmentally friendly manner. This protocol directly incorporates a wide spectrum of cyclic alcohols and activated allylic acetates into the cross-coupling reaction, eliminating the need for metal catalysts. The process yields a variety of distally unsaturated ketones with good to excellent outcomes and stereoselectivity, while acetic acid is the sole byproduct.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wubing Zeng
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, P. R. China
| | - Xiaoyu Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, P. R. China
| | - Yinlei Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, P. R. China
| | - Shiji Xiao
- Jiangsu BioGuide Laboratory Co., Ltd, Wujin Economic Development Zone, Changzhou 213000, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yongming Tang
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, P. R. China
| | - Peizhong Xie
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, P. R. China
| | - Teck-Peng Loh
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, P. R. China
- College of Advanced Interdisciplinary Science and Technology, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou 450001, China
- Division of Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, School of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637371
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7
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Villo P, Shatskiy A, Kärkäs MD, Lundberg H. Electrosynthetic C-O Bond Activation in Alcohols and Alcohol Derivatives. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202211952. [PMID: 36278406 PMCID: PMC10107720 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202211952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Alcohols and their derivatives are ubiquitous and versatile motifs in organic synthesis. Deoxygenative transformations of these compounds are often challenging due to the thermodynamic penalty associated with the cleavage of the C-O bond. However, electrochemically driven redox events have been shown to facilitate the C-O bond cleavage in alcohols and their derivatives either through direct electron transfer or through the use of electron transfer mediators and electroactive catalysts. Herein, a comprehensive overview of preparative electrochemically mediated protocols for C-O bond activation and functionalization is detailed, including direct and indirect electrosynthetic methods, as well as photoelectrochemical strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piret Villo
- Department of Chemistry, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE-100 44, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Andrey Shatskiy
- Department of Chemistry, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE-100 44, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Markus D Kärkäs
- Department of Chemistry, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE-100 44, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Helena Lundberg
- Department of Chemistry, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE-100 44, Stockholm, Sweden
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8
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Gunasekera D, Mahajan JP, Wanzi Y, Rodrigo S, Liu W, Tan T, Luo L. Controlling One- or Two-Electron Oxidation for Selective Amine Functionalization by Alternating Current Frequency. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:9874-9882. [PMID: 35622985 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c02605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Here, we report a unique electrosynthetic method that enables the selective one-electron oxidation of tertiary amines to generate α-amino radical intermediates over two-electron oxidation to iminium cations, providing easy access to arylation products by simply applying an optimal alternating current (AC) frequency. More importantly, we have discovered an electrochemical descriptor from cyclic voltammetry studies to predict the optimal AC frequency for various amine substrates, circumventing the time-consuming trial-and-error methods for optimizing reaction conditions. This new development in AC electrolysis provides an alternative strategy to solving challenging chemoselectivity problems in synthetic organic chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Disni Gunasekera
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Jyoti P Mahajan
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Yanick Wanzi
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Sachini Rodrigo
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
| | - Wei Liu
- Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Nanoscience, CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Ting Tan
- Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Nanoscience, CAS Center for Excellence in Nanoscience, National Center for Nanoscience and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Long Luo
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan 48202, United States
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