1
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Xin EYH, Kwek G, An X, Sun C, Liu S, Qing NS, Lingesh S, Jiang L, Liu G, Xing B. Enzymes in Synergy: Bacteria Specific Molecular Probe for Locoregional Imaging of Urinary Tract Infection in vivo. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202406843. [PMID: 38828878 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202406843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2024] [Revised: 05/31/2024] [Accepted: 06/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024]
Abstract
Uropathogenic Escherichia coli (UPECs) is a leading cause for urinary tract infections (UTI), accounting for 70-90 % of community or hospital-acquired bacterial infections owing to high recurrence, imprecision in diagnosis and management, and increasing prevalence of antibiotic resistance. Current methods for clinical UPECs detection still rely on labor-intensive urine cultures that impede rapid and accurate diagnosis for timely UTI therapeutic management. Herein, we developed a first-in-class near-infrared (NIR) UPECs fluorescent probe (NO-AH) capable of specifically targeting UPECs through its collaborative response to bacterial enzymes, enabling locoregional imaging of UTIs both in vitro and in vivo. Our NO-AH probe incorporates a dual protease activatable moiety, which first reacts with OmpT, an endopeptidase abundantly present on the outer membrane of UPECs, releasing an intermediate amino acid residue conjugated with a NIR hemicyanine fluorophore. Such liberated fragment would be subsequently recognized by aminopeptidase (APN) within the periplasm of UPECs, activating localized fluorescence for precise imaging of UTIs in complex living environments. The peculiar specificity and selectivity of NO-AH, facilitated by the collaborative action of bacterial enzymes, features a timely and accurate identification of UPECs-infected UTIs, which could overcome misdiagnosis in conventional urine tests, thus opening new avenues towards reliable UTI diagnosis and personalized antimicrobial therapy management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelias Yan Hui Xin
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, S637371, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Germain Kwek
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, S637371, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Xiaoyu An
- State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, National Innovation Platform for Industry-Education Integration in Vaccine Research, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, 4221 Xiangan Road, Xiang'an District, Xiamen, Fujian, 361102, China
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, 4221 Xianganan Road, Xiang'an District, Xiamen, Fujian, 361102, China
| | - Caixia Sun
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, S637371, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Songhan Liu
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, S637371, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Ng Shuang Qing
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, S637371, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Shonya Lingesh
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, S637371, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Lai Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, National Innovation Platform for Industry-Education Integration in Vaccine Research, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, 4221 Xiangan Road, Xiang'an District, Xiamen, Fujian, 361102, China
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, 260 Baichuan Road, Fuyang District, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 311402, China
| | - Gang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Vaccines for Infectious Diseases, Center for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine, Xiang An Biomedicine Laboratory, National Innovation Platform for Industry-Education Integration in Vaccine Research, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, 4221 Xiangan Road, Xiang'an District, Xiamen, Fujian, 361102, China
- State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, 4221 Xianganan Road, Xiang'an District, Xiamen, Fujian, 361102, China
| | - Bengang Xing
- School of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Nanyang Technological University, 21 Nanyang Link, S637371, Singapore, Singapore
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2
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Cheng Z, Benson S, Mendive-Tapia L, Nestoros E, Lochenie C, Seah D, Chang KY, Feng Y, Vendrell M. Enzyme-Activatable Near-Infrared Hemicyanines as Modular Scaffolds for in vivo Photodynamic Therapy. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202404587. [PMID: 38717316 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202404587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy is an anti-cancer treatment that requires illumination of photosensitizers to induce local cell death. Current near-infrared organic photosensitizers are built from large and non-modular structures that cannot be tuned to improve safety and minimize off-target toxicity. This work describes a novel chemical platform to generate enzyme-activatable near-infrared photosensitizers. We optimized the Se-bridged hemicyanine scaffold to include caging groups and biocompatible moieties, and generated cathepsin-triggered photosensitizers for effective ablation of human glioblastoma cells. Furthermore, we demonstrated that enzyme-activatable Se-bridged hemicyanines are effective photosensitizers for the safe ablation of microtumors in vivo, creating new avenues in the chemical design of targeted anti-cancer photodynamic therapy agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiming Cheng
- Centre for Inflammation Research, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, UK
- IRR Chemistry Hub, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Sam Benson
- Centre for Inflammation Research, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, UK
- IRR Chemistry Hub, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Lorena Mendive-Tapia
- Centre for Inflammation Research, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, UK
- IRR Chemistry Hub, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Eleni Nestoros
- Centre for Inflammation Research, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, UK
- IRR Chemistry Hub, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Charles Lochenie
- Centre for Inflammation Research, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, UK
- IRR Chemistry Hub, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Deborah Seah
- Centre for Inflammation Research, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, UK
- IRR Chemistry Hub, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Kai Yee Chang
- Centre for Inflammation Research, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Yi Feng
- Centre for Inflammation Research, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, UK
- Cancer Research UK Scotland Centre, Institute of Genetics and Cancer, The University of Edinburgh, EH4 2XR, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Marc Vendrell
- Centre for Inflammation Research, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, UK
- IRR Chemistry Hub, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, UK
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3
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Senan-Salinas A, Comas L, Esteban P, Garzón-Tituaña M, Cheng Z, Santiago L, Domingo MP, Ramírez-Labrada A, Paño-Pardo JR, Vendrell M, Pardo J, Arias MA, Galvez EM. Selective Detection of Active Extracellular Granzyme A by Using a Novel Fluorescent Immunoprobe with Application to Inflammatory Diseases. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2024; 7:1474-1484. [PMID: 38751645 PMCID: PMC11092195 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.4c00065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Revised: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
Granzymes (Gzms), a family of serine proteases, expressed by immune and nonimmune cells, present perforin-dependent and independent intracellular and extracellular functions. When released in the extracellular space, GzmA, with trypsin-like activity, is involved in the pathophysiology of different inflammatory diseases. However, there are no validated specific systems to detect active forms of extracellular GzmA, making it difficult to assess its biological relevance and potential use as a biomarker. Here, we have developed fluorescence-energy resonance-transfer (FRET)-based peptide probes (FAM-peptide-DABCYL) to specifically detect GzmA activity in tissue samples and biological fluids in both mouse and human samples during inflammatory diseases. An initial probe was developed and incubated with GzmA and different proteases like GzmB and others with similar cleavage specificity as GzmA like GzmK, thrombin, trypsin, kallikrein, or plasmin. After measuring fluorescence, the probe showed very good specificity and sensitivity for human and mouse GzmA when compared to GzmB, its closest homologue GzmK, and with thrombin. The specificity of this probe was further refined by incubating the samples in a coated plate with a GzmA-specific antibody before adding the probe. The results show a high specific detection of soluble GzmA even when compared with other soluble proteases with very similar cleavage specificity like thrombin, GzmK, trypsin, kallikrein, or plasmin, which shows nearly no fluorescence signal. The high specific detection of GzmA was validated, showing that using pure proteins and serum and tissue samples from GzmA-deficient mice presented a significant reduction in the signal compared with WT mice. The utility of this system in humans was confirmed, showing that GzmA activity was significantly higher in serum samples from septic patients in comparison with healthy donors. Our results present a new immunoprobe with utility to detect extracellular GzmA activity in different biological fluids, confirming the presence of active forms of the soluble protease in vivo during inflammatory and infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Laura Comas
- Instituto
de Carboquímica ICB-CSIC, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Patricia Esteban
- Fundación
Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), Biomedical Research Centre of Aragón (CIBA), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Marcela Garzón-Tituaña
- Dept.
Microbiology, Preventive Medicine and Public Health, University of Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- CIBERINFEC,
ISCIII—CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029Madrid, Spain
| | - Zhiming Cheng
- Centre for
Inflammation Research, The University of
Edinburgh, EH164UU Edinburgh, U.K.
- IRR
Chemistry Hub, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU Edinburgh, U.K.
| | | | | | - Ariel Ramírez-Labrada
- Fundación
Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), Biomedical Research Centre of Aragón (CIBA), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- CIBERINFEC,
ISCIII—CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029Madrid, Spain
- Unidad
de Nanotoxicología e Inmunotoxicología (UNATI), Centro
de Investigación Biomédica de Aragón (CIBA),
Aragón Health Research Institute (IIS Aragón), 50009Zaragoza, Spain
| | - José Ramón Paño-Pardo
- CIBERINFEC,
ISCIII—CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029Madrid, Spain
- Servicio
de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Hospital Clinico
Universitario Lozano Blesa, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Marc Vendrell
- Centre for
Inflammation Research, The University of
Edinburgh, EH164UU Edinburgh, U.K.
| | - Julián Pardo
- Fundación
Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), Biomedical Research Centre of Aragón (CIBA), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- Dept.
Microbiology, Preventive Medicine and Public Health, University of Zaragoza, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- CIBERINFEC,
ISCIII—CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029Madrid, Spain
| | - Maykel A. Arias
- Fundación
Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Aragón (IIS Aragón), Biomedical Research Centre of Aragón (CIBA), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- CIBERINFEC,
ISCIII—CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029Madrid, Spain
| | - Eva M. Galvez
- Instituto
de Carboquímica ICB-CSIC, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
- CIBERINFEC,
ISCIII—CIBER de Enfermedades Infecciosas, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029Madrid, Spain
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4
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Lu P, Dai SM, Zhou H, Wang F, Dong WR, Jiang JH. Xanthene-based near-infrared chromophores for high-contrast fluorescence and photoacoustic imaging of dipeptidyl peptidase 4. Chem Sci 2024; 15:2221-2228. [PMID: 38332839 PMCID: PMC10848782 DOI: 10.1039/d3sc04947g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Near-infrared (NIR) chromophores with analyte tunable emission and absorption properties are highly desirable for developing activatable fluorescence and photoacoustic (PA) probes for bioimaging and disease diagnosis. Here we engineer a class of new chromophores by extending the π-conjugation system of a xanthene scaffold at position 7 with different electron withdrawing groups. It is demonstrated that these chromophores exhibit pH-dependent transition from a spirocyclic "closed" form to a xanthene "open" form with remarkable changes in spectral properties. We further develop fluorescence and PA probes by caging the NIR xanthene chromophores with a dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPPIV) substrate. In vitro and live cell studies show that these probes allow activatable fluorescence and PA detection and imaging of DPPIV activity with high sensitivity, high specificity and fast response. Moreover, these two probes allow high-contrast and highly specific imaging of DPPIV activity in a tumour-bearing mouse model in vivo via systemic administration. This study highlights the potential of a xanthene scaffold as a versatile platform for developing high-contrast fluorescence and PA molecular probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pei Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometric, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University Changsha 410082 P. R. China
| | - Si-Min Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometric, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University Changsha 410082 P. R. China
| | - Huihui Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometric, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University Changsha 410082 P. R. China
| | - Fenglin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometric, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University Changsha 410082 P. R. China
| | - Wan-Rong Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometric, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University Changsha 410082 P. R. China
| | - Jian-Hui Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemo/Bio-Sensing and Chemometric, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hunan University Changsha 410082 P. R. China
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5
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Reese A, de Moliner F, Mendive-Tapia L, Benson S, Kuru E, Bridge T, Richards J, Rittichier J, Kitamura T, Sachdeva A, McSorley HJ, Vendrell M. Inserting "OFF-to-ON" BODIPY Tags into Cytokines: A Fluorogenic Interleukin IL-33 for Real-Time Imaging of Immune Cells. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2024; 10:143-154. [PMID: 38292608 PMCID: PMC10823590 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.3c01125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2024]
Abstract
The essential functions that cytokine/immune cell interactions play in tissue homeostasis and during disease have prompted the molecular design of targeted fluorophores to monitor their activity in real time. Whereas activatable probes for imaging immune-related enzymes are common, many immunological functions are mediated by binding events between cytokines and their cognate receptors that are hard to monitor by live-cell imaging. A prime example is interleukin-33 (IL-33), a key cytokine in innate and adaptive immunity, whose interaction with the ST2 cell-surface receptor results in downstream signaling and activation of NF-κB and AP-1 pathways. In the present work, we have designed a chemical platform to site-specifically introduce OFF-to-ON BODIPY fluorophores into full cytokine proteins and generate the first nativelike fluorescent analogues of IL-33. Among different incorporation strategies, chemical aminoacylation followed by bioorthogonal derivatization led to the best labeling results. Importantly, the BODIPY-labeled IL-33 derivatives-unlike IL-33-GFP constructs-exhibited ST2-specific binding and downstream bioactivity profiles comparable to those of the wild-type interleukin. Real-time fluorescence microscopy assays under no wash conditions confirmed the internalization of IL-33 through ST2 receptors and its intracellular trafficking through the endosomal pathway. We envision that the modularity and versatility of our BODIPY labeling platform will facilitate the synthesis of minimally tagged fluorogenic cytokines as the next generation of imaging reagents for real-time visualization of signaling events in live immune cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail
E. Reese
- Centre
for Inflammation Research, The University
of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- IRR
Chemistry Hub, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Fabio de Moliner
- Centre
for Inflammation Research, The University
of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- IRR
Chemistry Hub, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Lorena Mendive-Tapia
- Centre
for Inflammation Research, The University
of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- IRR
Chemistry Hub, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Sam Benson
- Centre
for Inflammation Research, The University
of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- IRR
Chemistry Hub, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Erkin Kuru
- Department
of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- Wyss
Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, United States
| | - Thomas Bridge
- School
of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Josh Richards
- Division
of Cell Signaling and Immunology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HN, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan Rittichier
- Department
of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Takanori Kitamura
- Centre
for Reproductive Health, The University
of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Amit Sachdeva
- School
of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, United Kingdom
| | - Henry J. McSorley
- Division
of Cell Signaling and Immunology, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HN, United Kingdom
| | - Marc Vendrell
- Centre
for Inflammation Research, The University
of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- IRR
Chemistry Hub, Institute for Regeneration and Repair, The University of Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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6
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Kazim M, Yoo E. Recent Advances in the Development of Non-Invasive Imaging Probes for Cancer Immunotherapy. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202310694. [PMID: 37843426 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202310694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Revised: 10/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
The last two decades have witnessed a major revolution in the field of tumor immunology including clinical progress using various immunotherapy strategies. These advances have highlighted the potential for approaches that harness the power of the immune system to fight against cancer. While cancer immunotherapies have shown significant clinical successes, patient responses vary widely due to the complex and heterogeneous nature of tumors and immune responses, calling for reliable biomarkers and therapeutic strategies to maximize the benefits of immunotherapy. Especially, stratifying responding individuals from non-responders during the early stages of treatment could help avoid long-term damage and tailor personalized treatments. In efforts to develop non-invasive means for accurately evaluating and predicting tumor response to immunotherapy, multiple affinity-based agents targeting immune cell markers and checkpoint molecules have been developed and advanced to clinical trials. In addition, researchers have recently turned their attention to substrate and activity-based imaging probes that can provide real-time, functional assessment of immune response to treatment. Here, we highlight some of those recently designed probes that image functional proteases as biomarkers of cancer immunotherapy with a focus on their chemical design and detection modalities and discuss challenges and opportunities for the development of imaging tools utilized in cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Kazim
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Euna Yoo
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
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7
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Ma X, Mao M, He J, Liang C, Xie HY. Nanoprobe-based molecular imaging for tumor stratification. Chem Soc Rev 2023; 52:6447-6496. [PMID: 37615588 DOI: 10.1039/d3cs00063j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
The responses of patients to tumor therapies vary due to tumor heterogeneity. Tumor stratification has been attracting increasing attention for accurately distinguishing between responders to treatment and non-responders. Nanoprobes with unique physical and chemical properties have great potential for patient stratification. This review begins by describing the features and design principles of nanoprobes that can visualize specific cell types and biomarkers and release inflammatory factors during or before tumor treatment. Then, we focus on the recent advancements in using nanoprobes to stratify various therapeutic modalities, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy (RT), photothermal therapy (PTT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), chemodynamic therapy (CDT), ferroptosis, and immunotherapy. The main challenges and perspectives of nanoprobes in cancer stratification are also discussed to facilitate probe development and clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianbin Ma
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, P. R. China
| | - Mingchuan Mao
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, P. R. China
| | - Jiaqi He
- School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, P. R. China
| | - Chao Liang
- School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, P. R. China
| | - Hai-Yan Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chemical Biology Center, Peking University, Beijing, 100191, P. R. China.
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