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Alavi SE, Alavi SZ, Gholami M, Sharma A, Sharma LA, Ebrahimi Shahmabadi H. Biocomposite-based strategies for dental bone regeneration. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol 2023; 136:554-568. [PMID: 37612166 DOI: 10.1016/j.oooo.2023.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 04/15/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Because of the anatomical complexity of the oral and maxillofacial sites, repairing bone defects in these regions is very difficult. This review article aims to consider the application of biocomposites-based strategies for dental bone regeneration. STUDY DESIGN Research papers related to the topic, published over the last 20 years, were selected using the Web of Science, Pubmed, Scopus, and Google Scholar databases. RESULTS The strategies of monophasic, biphasic/multiphasic scaffolds, and biopolymer-based nanocomposite scaffolds containing nanomaterials compared with traditional methods used for bone regeneration, such as autografts, allografts, xenografts, and alloplasts are found to be superior because of their ability to overcome the issues (e.g., limited bone sources, pain, immune responses, high cost) related to the applications of the traditional methods. CONCLUSIONS In addition, additive manufacturing technologies were found to be highly advantageous for improving the efficacy of biocomposite scaffolds for treating dental bone defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seyed Ebrahim Alavi
- School of Medicine and Dentistry, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia
| | - Seyed Zeinab Alavi
- Immunology of Infectious Diseases Research Center, Research Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran
| | - Max Gholami
- School of Medicine and Dentistry, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia
| | - Ajay Sharma
- School of Medicine and Dentistry, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia
| | - Lavanya A Sharma
- School of Medicine and Dentistry, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Australia.
| | - Hasan Ebrahimi Shahmabadi
- Immunology of Infectious Diseases Research Center, Research Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan University of Medical Sciences, Rafsanjan, Iran.
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2
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Dubey N, Ribeiro JS, Zhang Z, Xu J, Ferreira JA, Qu L, Mei L, Fenno JC, Schwendeman A, Schwendeman SP, Nör JE, Bottino MC. Gelatin methacryloyl hydrogel as an injectable scaffold with multi-therapeutic effects to promote antimicrobial disinfection and angiogenesis for regenerative endodontics. J Mater Chem B 2023; 11:3823-3835. [PMID: 36946228 PMCID: PMC10160005 DOI: 10.1039/d2tb02788g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
Regenerative endodontics represents a paradigm shift in dental pulp therapy for necrotic young permanent teeth. However, there are still challenges associated with attaining maximum root canal disinfection while supporting angiogenesis and preserving resident stem cells viability and differentiation capacity. Here, we developed a hydrogel system by incorporating antibiotic-eluting fiber-based microparticles in gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) hydrogel to gather antimicrobial and angiogenic properties while prompting minimum cell toxicity. Minocycline (MINO) or clindamycin (CLIN) was introduced into a polymer solution and electrospun into fibers, which were further cryomilled to attain MINO- or CLIN-eluting fibrous microparticles. To obtain hydrogels with multi-therapeutic effects, MINO- or CLIN-eluting microparticles were suspended in GelMA at distinct concentrations. The engineered hydrogels demonstrated antibiotic-dependent swelling and degradability while inhibiting bacterial growth with minimum toxicity in dental-derived stem cells. Notably, compared to MINO, CLIN hydrogels enhanced the formation of capillary-like networks of endothelial cells in vitro and the presence of widespread vascularization with functioning blood vessels in vivo. Our data shed new light onto the clinical potential of antibiotic-eluting gelatin methacryloyl hydrogel as an injectable scaffold with multi-therapeutic effects to promote antimicrobial disinfection and angiogenesis for regenerative endodontics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nileshkumar Dubey
- Department of Cariology, Restorative Sciences, and Endodontics, School of Dentistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.
- Faculty of Dentistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Juliana S Ribeiro
- Department of Cariology, Restorative Sciences, and Endodontics, School of Dentistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.
- Department of Dentistry, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, SC, Brazil
| | - Zhaocheng Zhang
- Department of Cariology, Restorative Sciences, and Endodontics, School of Dentistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.
| | - Jinping Xu
- Department of Cariology, Restorative Sciences, and Endodontics, School of Dentistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.
| | - Jessica A Ferreira
- Department of Cariology, Restorative Sciences, and Endodontics, School of Dentistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.
| | - Liu Qu
- Department of Cariology, Restorative Sciences, and Endodontics, School of Dentistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.
- Department of Endodontics, School and Hospital of Stomatology, China Medical University, Liaoning Provincial Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, Shenyang, China
| | - Ling Mei
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and the Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - J Christopher Fenno
- Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences & Prosthodontics, University of Michigan School of Dentistry, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Anna Schwendeman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and the Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Steven P Schwendeman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and the Biointerfaces Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Jacques E Nör
- Department of Cariology, Restorative Sciences, and Endodontics, School of Dentistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Marco C Bottino
- Department of Cariology, Restorative Sciences, and Endodontics, School of Dentistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
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3
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Dogan D, Erdem U, Bozer BM, Turkoz MB, Yıldırım G, Metin AU. Resorbable membrane design: In vitro characterization of silver doped-hydroxyapatite-reinforced XG/PEI semi-IPN composite. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 2023; 142:105887. [PMID: 37141744 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmbbm.2023.105887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Revised: 04/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/01/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the production and characterization of silver-doped hydroxyapatite (AgHA) reinforced Xanthan gum (XG) and Polyethyleneimine (PEI) reinforced semi-interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) biocomposite, known to be used as bone cover material for therapeutic purposes in bone tissue, were performed. XG/PEI IPN films containing 2AgHA nanoparticles were produced by simultaneous condensation and ionic gelation. Characteristics of 2AgHA-XG/PEI nanocomposite film were evaluated by structural, morphological (SEM, XRD, FT-IR, TGA, TM, and Raman) and biological activity analysis (degradation, MTT, genotoxicity, and antimicrobial activity) techniques. In the physicochemical characterization, it was determined that 2AgHA nanoparticles were homogeneously dispersed in the XG/PEI-IPN membrane at high concentration and the thermal and mechanical stability of the formed film were high. The nanocomposites showed high antibacterial activity against Acinetobacter Baumannii (A.Baumannii), Staphylococcus aureus (S.aureus), and Streptococcus mutans (S.mutans). L929 exhibited good biocompatibility for fibroblast cells and was determined to support the formation of MCC cells. It was shown that a resorbable 2AgHA-XG/PEI composite material was obtained with a high degradation rate and 64% loss of mass at the end of the 7th day. Physico-chemically developed biocompatible and biodegradable XG-2AgHA/PEI nanocomposite semi-IPN films possessed an important potential for the treatment of defects in bone tissue as an easily applicable bone cover. Besides, it was noted that 2AgHA-XG/PEI biocomposite could increase cell viability, especially in dental-bone treatments for coating, filling, and occlusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deniz Dogan
- Kirikkale University, Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, 71450, Turkey
| | - Umit Erdem
- Kirikkale University, Scientific and Tech. Research Center, Kirikkale, 71450, Turkey.
| | - Busra M Bozer
- Hitit University, Scientific Technical App. and Research Center, Corum, 19030, Turkey
| | - Mustafa B Turkoz
- Karabuk University, Faculty of Engineering, Electric and Electronics Engineering, Karabuk, 78050, Turkey
| | - Gurcan Yıldırım
- Abant Izzet Baysal University, Faculty of Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Bolu, 14280, Turkey
| | - Aysegul U Metin
- Kirikkale University, Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, 71450, Turkey
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4
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Adarsh RK, Das EC, Gopan GV, Rajan RK, Komath M. Quaternised chitosan composites with in situ precipitated nano calcium phosphate for making bioactive and degradable tissue engineering scaffolds. JOURNAL OF POLYMER RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10965-022-03125-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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5
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Iliou K, Kikionis S, Ioannou E, Roussis V. Marine Biopolymers as Bioactive Functional Ingredients of Electrospun Nanofibrous Scaffolds for Biomedical Applications. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20050314. [PMID: 35621965 PMCID: PMC9143254 DOI: 10.3390/md20050314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2022] [Revised: 04/30/2022] [Accepted: 05/01/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine biopolymers, abundantly present in seaweeds and marine animals, feature diverse structures and functionalities, and possess a wide range of beneficial biological activities. Characterized by high biocompatibility and biodegradability, as well as unique physicochemical properties, marine biopolymers are attracting a constantly increasing interest for the development of advanced systems for applications in the biomedical field. The development of electrospinning offers an innovative technological platform for the production of nonwoven nanofibrous scaffolds with increased surface area, high encapsulation efficacy, intrinsic interconnectivity, and structural analogy to the natural extracellular matrix. Marine biopolymer-based electrospun nanofibrous scaffolds with multifunctional characteristics and tunable mechanical properties now attract significant attention for biomedical applications, such as tissue engineering, drug delivery, and wound healing. The present review, covering the literature up to the end of 2021, highlights the advancements in the development of marine biopolymer-based electrospun nanofibers for their utilization as cell proliferation scaffolds, bioadhesives, release modifiers, and wound dressings.
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6
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Turner B, Ramesh S, Menegatti S, Daniele M. Resorbable elastomers for implantable medical devices: highlights and applications. POLYM INT 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/pi.6349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brendan Turner
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering North Carolina State University and University of Chapel Hill Raleigh NC USA
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering North Carolina State University Raleigh NC USA
| | - Srivatsan Ramesh
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering North Carolina State University Raleigh NC USA
| | - Stefano Menegatti
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering North Carolina State University Raleigh NC USA
| | - Michael Daniele
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering North Carolina State University and University of Chapel Hill Raleigh NC USA
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering North Carolina State University Raleigh NC USA
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7
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Tamburaci S, Tihminlioglu F. Development of Si doped nano hydroxyapatite reinforced bilayer chitosan nanocomposite barrier membranes for guided bone regeneration. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2021; 128:112298. [PMID: 34474849 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2021.112298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2021] [Revised: 06/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Guided Bone Regeneration (GBR) is a widely used process for the treatment of periodontal defects to prevent the formation of surrounding soft tissue at the periodontal defect and to provide hard tissue regeneration. Recently GBR designs have focused on the development of resorbable natural polymer-based barrier membranes due to their biodegradability and excellent biocompatibility. The aim of this study is to fabricate a novel bilayer nanocomposite membrane with microporous sublayer composed of chitosan and Si doped nanohydroxyapatite particles (Si-nHap) and chitosan/PEO nanofiber upper layer. Bilayer membrane was designed to prevent epithelial and fibroblastic cell migration and growth impeding bone formation with its upper layer and to support osteogenic cell bioactivity at the defect site with its sublayer. Microporous and nanofiber layers were fabricated by using freeze-drying and electrospinning techniques respectively. The effect of Si-nHap content on the morphological, mechanical and physical properties of the composites were investigated using SEM, AFM, micro-Ct, compression test, water uptake capacity and enzymatic degradation study. Antimicrobial properties of nanocomposite membranes were investigated with tube dilution and disk diffusion methods. In vitro cytotoxicity of bilayer membranes was evaluated. Saos-2 and NIH/3T3 proliferation studies were carried out on each layer. In vitro bioactivity of Saos-2 and NIH/3T3 cells were evaluated with ALP activity and hydroxyproline content respectively. Results showed that Si-nHap incorporation enhanced the mechanical and physical properties as well as controlling biodegradability of the polymer matrix. Besides, Si-nHap loading induced the bioactivity of Saos-2 cells by enhancing cell attachment, spreading and biomineralization on the material surface. Thus, results supported that designed bilayer nanocomposite membranes can be used as a potential biomaterial for guided bone regeneration in periodontal applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sedef Tamburaci
- Izmir Institute of Technology, Graduate Program of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Gulbahçe Campus, Urla, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Funda Tihminlioglu
- Izmir Institute of Technology, Department of Chemical Engineering, Gulbahçe Campus, Urla, İzmir, Turkey.
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8
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Mehta P, Rasekh M, Patel M, Onaiwu E, Nazari K, Kucuk I, Wilson PB, Arshad MS, Ahmad Z, Chang MW. Recent applications of electrical, centrifugal, and pressurised emerging technologies for fibrous structure engineering in drug delivery, regenerative medicine and theranostics. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 175:113823. [PMID: 34089777 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.05.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Advancements in technology and material development in recent years has led to significant breakthroughs in the remit of fiber engineering. Conventional methods such as wet spinning, melt spinning, phase separation and template synthesis have been reported to develop fibrous structures for an array of applications. However, these methods have limitations with respect to processing conditions (e.g. high processing temperatures, shear stresses) and production (e.g. non-continuous fibers). The materials that can be processed using these methods are also limited, deterring their use in practical applications. Producing fibrous structures on a nanometer scale, in sync with the advancements in nanotechnology is another challenge met by these conventional methods. In this review we aim to present a brief overview of conventional methods of fiber fabrication and focus on the emerging fiber engineering techniques namely electrospinning, centrifugal spinning and pressurised gyration. This review will discuss the fundamental principles and factors governing each fabrication method and converge on the applications of the resulting spun fibers; specifically, in the drug delivery remit and in regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prina Mehta
- Leicester School of Pharmacy, De Montfort University, Leicester LE1 9BH, UK
| | - Manoochehr Rasekh
- College of Engineering, Design and Physical Sciences, Brunel University London, Middlesex UB8 3PH, UK
| | - Mohammed Patel
- Leicester School of Pharmacy, De Montfort University, Leicester LE1 9BH, UK
| | - Ekhoerose Onaiwu
- Leicester School of Pharmacy, De Montfort University, Leicester LE1 9BH, UK
| | - Kazem Nazari
- Leicester School of Pharmacy, De Montfort University, Leicester LE1 9BH, UK
| | - I Kucuk
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Gebze Technical University, 41400 Gebze, Turkey
| | - Philippe B Wilson
- School of Animal, Rural and Environmental Sciences, Nottingham Trent University, Brackenhurst Campus, Southwell NG25 0QF, UK
| | | | - Zeeshan Ahmad
- Leicester School of Pharmacy, De Montfort University, Leicester LE1 9BH, UK
| | - Ming-Wei Chang
- Nanotechnology and Integrated Bioengineering Centre, University of Ulster, Jordanstown Campus, Newtownabbey, Northern Ireland BT37 0QB, UK.
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9
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Zhao LS, Cai YH. Insight on the effect of a piperonylic acid derivative on the
crystallization process, melting behavior, thermal stability, optical and mechanical
properties of poly(l-lactic acid). E-POLYMERS 2020. [DOI: 10.1515/epoly-2020-0027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
A new piperonylic acid derivative (BPASD) was synthesized and evaluated as an organic
nucleating agent for poly(l-lactic acid) (PLLA) via melt-crystallization;
the other behaviors including cold-crystallization, melting process after
crystallization, thermal stability in air atmosphere, and optical and mechanical
properties of PLLA/BPASD samples were also investigated. The results of the
melt-crystallization investigation showed that, in comparison to virgin PLLA, the
BPASD could induce PLLA to crystallize in higher temperature region or at a faster
cooling rate, suggesting that the BPASD as a heterogeneous nucleating agent could
promote the crystallization of PLLA, but the melt-crystallization depended on the
cooling rate, BPASD concentration, and the final melting temperature. With increasing
of BPASD concentration, a shift to the lower temperature of cold-crystallization peak
and decrease of crystallization enthalpy indicated that BPASD had an inhibition for
the cold-crystallization of PLLA to some extent. The heating rate, crystallization
temperature, the BPASD, and its concentration were critical factors to the melting
process, and double-melting peaks appeared in heating were assigned to
melting–recrystallization. Thermal decomposition behavior revealed that the
addition of BPASD reduced the thermal stability of PLLA, but the interaction of PLLA
and BPASD could prevent the decrease of the onset decomposition temperature. Further,
the BPASD also decreased the light transmittance and elongation at the break of PLLA,
but the tensile modulus and tensile strength of PLLA were enhanced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Sha Zhao
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Environmental Materials & Remediation Technologies , Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences , Chongqing , 402160 , P. R. China
| | - Yan-Hua Cai
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Environmental Materials & Remediation Technologies , Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences , Chongqing , 402160 , P. R. China
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10
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Pereira Rodrigues IC, Tamborlin L, Rodrigues AA, Jardini AL, Ducati Luchessi A, Maciel Filho R, Najar Lopes ÉS, Pellizzer Gabriel L. Polyurethane fibrous membranes tailored by rotary jet spinning for tissue engineering applications. J Appl Polym Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/app.48455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Leticia Tamborlin
- School of Applied SciencesUniversity of Campinas Limeira São Paulo Brazil
- Institute of BiosciencesSão Paulo State University Rio Claro São Paulo Brazil
| | | | - André Luiz Jardini
- National Institute of Biofabrication Campinas São Paulo Brazil
- School of Chemical EngineeringUniversity of Campinas Campinas São Paulo Brazil
| | - Augusto Ducati Luchessi
- School of Applied SciencesUniversity of Campinas Limeira São Paulo Brazil
- Institute of BiosciencesSão Paulo State University Rio Claro São Paulo Brazil
| | - Rubens Maciel Filho
- National Institute of Biofabrication Campinas São Paulo Brazil
- School of Chemical EngineeringUniversity of Campinas Campinas São Paulo Brazil
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11
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Multi-Functional Electrospun Nanofibers from Polymer Blends for Scaffold Tissue Engineering. FIBERS 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/fib7070066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Electrospinning and polymer blending have been the focus of research and the industry for their versatility, scalability, and potential applications across many different fields. In tissue engineering, nanofiber scaffolds composed of natural fibers, synthetic fibers, or a mixture of both have been reported. This review reports recent advances in polymer blended scaffolds for tissue engineering and the fabrication of functional scaffolds by electrospinning. A brief theory of electrospinning and the general setup as well as modifications used are presented. Polymer blends, including blends with natural polymers, synthetic polymers, mixture of natural and synthetic polymers, and nanofiller systems, are discussed in detail and reviewed.
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12
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Manufacture and Property of Warp-Knitted Fabrics with Polylactic Acid Multifilament. Polymers (Basel) 2019; 11:polym11010065. [PMID: 30960049 PMCID: PMC6402289 DOI: 10.3390/polym11010065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Revised: 12/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigates the properties of polylactic acid (PLA) multifilament and its warp-knitted fabrics. Multifilament properties were tested and compared with PET multifilament with different diameters. The 83.3 dtex PLA multifilament was used to knit the fabric, and the fabric properties before and after dyeing were studied. Results showed that the mechanical properties of PLA multifilament were comparable to those of PET. However, PLA had a higher heat shrinkage rate. The dyed PLA warp-knitted fabric has excellent color fastness. Due to the influence of temperature and dye particles during the dyeing process, the breaking strength, air permeability and moisture permeability of the fabric were decreased. On the contrary, the elongation at break, abrasion resistance, anti-pilling properties, drape and crochet value of the fabric were increased.
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