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Martinez Q, Wright M, Dubourguier B, Ito K, van de Kamp T, Hamann E, Zuber M, Ferreira G, Blanc R, Fabre PH, Hautier L, Amson E. Disparity of turbinal bones in placental mammals. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2024. [PMID: 39099296 DOI: 10.1002/ar.25552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2024] [Revised: 07/15/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 08/06/2024]
Abstract
Turbinals are key bony elements of the mammalian nasal cavity, involved in heat and moisture conservation as well as olfaction. While turbinals are well known in some groups, their diversity is poorly understood at the scale of placental mammals, which span 21 orders. Here, we investigated the turbinal bones and associated lamellae for one representative of each extant order of placental mammals. We segmented and isolated each independent turbinal and lamella and found an important diversity of variation in the number of turbinals, as well as their size, and shape. We found that the turbinal count varies widely, from zero in the La Plata dolphin, (Pontoporia blainvillei) to about 110 in the African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana). Multiple turbinal losses and additional gains took place along the phylogeny of placental mammals. Some changes are clearly attributed to ecological adaptation, while others are probably related to phylogenetic inertia. In addition, this work highlights the problem of turbinal nomenclature in some placental orders with numerous and highly complex turbinals, for which homologies are extremely difficult to resolve. Therefore, this work underscores the importance of developmental studies to better clarify turbinal homology and nomenclature and provides a standardized comparative framework for further research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Martinez
- Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
- Institut des Sciences de l'Évolution (ISEM, UMR 5554 CNRS-IRD-UM), Université de Montpellier, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Mark Wright
- Institut des Sciences de l'Évolution (ISEM, UMR 5554 CNRS-IRD-UM), Université de Montpellier, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
- Museum of Comparative Zoology and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Benjamin Dubourguier
- Institut des Sciences de l'Évolution (ISEM, UMR 5554 CNRS-IRD-UM), Université de Montpellier, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Kai Ito
- Department of Natural Environmental Studies, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Chiba, Japan
- Department of Anatomy, School of Dental Medicine, Tsurumi University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Thomas van de Kamp
- Institute for Photon Science and Synchrotron Radiation (IPS), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
- Laboratory for Applications of Synchrotron Radiation (LAS), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Elias Hamann
- Institute for Photon Science and Synchrotron Radiation (IPS), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Marcus Zuber
- Institute for Photon Science and Synchrotron Radiation (IPS), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Gabriel Ferreira
- Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Palaeoenvironment at the Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Department of Geosciences, Faculty of Sciences, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Rémi Blanc
- Thermo Fisher Scientific, Bordeaux, France
| | - Pierre-Henri Fabre
- Institut des Sciences de l'Évolution (ISEM, UMR 5554 CNRS-IRD-UM), Université de Montpellier, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
- Mammal Section, Department of Life Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London, UK
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), Paris, France
- Division of Vertebrate Zoology (Mammalogy), American Museum of Natural History, New York, New York, USA
| | - Lionel Hautier
- Institut des Sciences de l'Évolution (ISEM, UMR 5554 CNRS-IRD-UM), Université de Montpellier, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
- Mammal Section, Department of Life Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London, UK
| | - Eli Amson
- Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
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Martinez Q, Amson E, Ruf I, Smith TD, Pirot N, Broyon M, Lebrun R, Captier G, Gascó Martín C, Ferreira G, Fabre PH. Turbinal bones are still one of the last frontiers of the tetrapod skull: hypotheses, challenges and perspectives. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024. [PMID: 39092480 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 07/03/2024] [Accepted: 07/10/2024] [Indexed: 08/04/2024]
Abstract
Turbinals are bony or cartilaginous structures that are present in the nasal cavity of most tetrapods. They are involved in key functions such as olfaction, heat, and moisture conservation, as well as protection of the respiratory tract. Despite recent studies that challenged long-standing hypotheses about their physiological and genomic correlation, turbinals remain largely unexplored, particularly for non-mammalian species. Herein, we review and synthesise the current knowledge of turbinals using an integrative approach that includes comparative anatomy, physiology, histology and genomics. In addition, we provide synonyms and correspondences of tetrapod turbinals from about 80 publications. This work represents a first step towards drawing hypotheses of homology for the whole clade, and provides a strong basis to develop new research avenues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quentin Martinez
- Institut des Sciences de l'Évolution (ISEM, UMR 5554 CNRS-IRD-UM), Université de Montpellier, Place E. Bataillon-CC 064 - 34095, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
- Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Stuttgart, Stuttgart, DE-70191, Germany
| | - Eli Amson
- Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde Stuttgart, Stuttgart, DE-70191, Germany
| | - Irina Ruf
- Abteilung Messelforschung und Mammalogie, Senckenberg Forschungsinstitut und Naturmuseum Frankfurt, Frankfurt am Main, 60325, Germany
- Institut für Geowissenschaften, Goethe-Universität Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt am Main, 60438, Germany
- Research Center of Paleontology and Stratigraphy, Jilin University, Changchun, 130026, China
| | - Timothy D Smith
- School of Physical Therapy, Slippery Rock University, Slippery Rock, PA, 16057, USA
| | - Nelly Pirot
- BioCampus Montpellier (BCM), Université de Montpellier, CNRS, INSERM, Montpellier, 34090, France
- Institut de Recherche en Cancérologie de Montpellier (IRCM), Université de Montpellier, Institut du Cancer de Montpellier (ICM), INSERM, Montpellier, 34298, France
| | - Morgane Broyon
- BioCampus Montpellier (BCM), Université de Montpellier, CNRS, INSERM, Montpellier, 34090, France
- Institut de Recherche en Cancérologie de Montpellier (IRCM), Université de Montpellier, Institut du Cancer de Montpellier (ICM), INSERM, Montpellier, 34298, France
| | - Renaud Lebrun
- Institut des Sciences de l'Évolution (ISEM, UMR 5554 CNRS-IRD-UM), Université de Montpellier, Place E. Bataillon-CC 064 - 34095, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
| | - Guillaume Captier
- Laboratoire d'anatomie, UFR médecine, Université Montpellier, Montpellier, 34060, France
- Département chirurgie pédiatrique, CHU Montpellier, université Montpellier, Montpellier, 34295, France
| | | | - Gabriel Ferreira
- Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Palaeoenvironment at the Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, 727074, Germany
- Department of Geosciences, Faculty of Sciences, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, 727074, Germany
| | - Pierre-Henri Fabre
- Institut des Sciences de l'Évolution (ISEM, UMR 5554 CNRS-IRD-UM), Université de Montpellier, Place E. Bataillon-CC 064 - 34095, Montpellier Cedex 5, France
- Mammal Section, Department of Life Sciences, The Natural History Museum, London, SW7 5DB, UK
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), Paris, 75231, France
- Division of Vertebrate Zoology (Mammalogy), American Museum of Natural History, Central Park West, 79th St, New York, NY, 10024-5192, USA
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von Doernberg MC, von Rechenberg B, Richter H. Retrospective evaluation of radiofrequency volumetric tissue reduction for hypertrophic turbinates in dogs with brachycephalic obstructive airway syndrome. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0306391. [PMID: 38950052 PMCID: PMC11216595 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0306391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 07/03/2024] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to retrospectively assess the effect of Radiofrequency Volumetric Tissue Reduction (RFVTR) on hypertrophic turbinates and clinical outcome in brachycephalic dogs when included in multi-level surgery (MLS). STUDY DESIGN Clinical retrospective multicenter study. ANIMALS 132 client-owned brachycephalic dogs. METHODS 132 brachycephalic dogs with high-grade Brachycephalic Obstructive Airway Ayndrome (BOAS) and hypertrophic turbinates were treated with RFVTR as part of MLS of the upper airways. Intranasal obstruction was evaluated by computer tomography (CT) and antero-/retrograde rhinoscopy before and 6 months after RFVTR. The clinical records, the CT images and the rhinoscopy videos were reviewed and clinical evolution was evaluated using a standardized questionnaire. The data was scored semi-quantitatively. RESULTS In this study, 132 patients were included for a follow-up period of 120 weeks. RFVTR resulted in minor complications, including serous nasal discharge within the first postoperative week in all dogs, and intermittent nasal congestion between 3-8 weeks after treatment in 24.3% of the patients. Rhinoscopy and CT follow-ups were available for 33 patients. Six months after treatment intranasal airspace was increased (p = 0.002) and the presence and overall amount of mucosal contact points was reduced (p = 0.039). CONCLUSION MLS with RFVTR led to a significant reduction in turbinate volume at the 6-month follow-up examination and significant clinical improvement over a long-term period of 120 weeks. This suggests the viability of RFVTR as a turbinate-preserving treatment for intranasal obstruction in dogs with BOAS. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE RFVTR is a minimally invasive turbinoplasty technique for intranasal obstruction in dogs with BOAS and can be included in MLS without increasing complication rates.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Brigitte von Rechenberg
- Center for Applied Biotechnology and Molecular Medicine (CABMM), University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Henning Richter
- Center for Applied Biotechnology and Molecular Medicine (CABMM), University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Diagnostic Imaging Research Unit (DIRU), Clinic for Diagnostic Imaging, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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Yohe LR, Krell NT. An updated synthesis of and outstanding questions in the olfactory and vomeronasal systems in bats: Genetics asks questions only anatomy can answer. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2023; 306:2765-2780. [PMID: 37523493 DOI: 10.1002/ar.25290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2023] [Revised: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
The extensive diversity observed in bat nasal chemosensory systems has been well-documented at the histological level. Understanding how this diversity evolved and developing hypotheses as to why particular patterns exist require a phylogenetic perspective, which was first outlined in the work of anatomist Kunwar Bhatnagar. With the onset of genetics and genomics, it might be assumed that the puzzling patterns observed in the morphological data have been clarified. However, there is still a widespread mismatch of genetic and morphological correlations among bat chemosensory systems. Novel genomic evidence has set up new avenues to explore that demand more evidence from anatomical structures. Here, we outline the progress that has been made in both morphological and molecular studies on the olfactory and vomeronasal systems in bats since the work of Bhatnagar. Genomic data of olfactory and vomeronasal receptors demonstrate the strong need for further morphological sampling, with a particular focus on receiving brain regions, glands, and ducts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurel R Yohe
- Department of Bioinformatics and Genomics, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA
- North Carolina Research Campus, Kannapolis, North Carolina, USA
| | - Nicholas T Krell
- Department of Bioinformatics and Genomics, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, Charlotte, North Carolina, USA
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Yuk J, Akash MMH, Chakraborty A, Basu S, Chamorro LP, Jung S. Morphology of pig nasal structure and modulation of airflow and basic thermal conditioning. Integr Comp Biol 2023; 63:304-314. [PMID: 36731869 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icad005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2022] [Revised: 11/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Mammals have presumably evolved to adapt to a diverse range of ambient environmental conditions through the optimized heat and mass exchange. One of the crucial biological structures for survivability is the nose, which efficiently transports and thermally preconditions the external air before reaching the internal body. Nasal mucosa and cavity help warm and humidify the inhaled air quickly. Despite its crucial role, the morphological features of mammal noses and their effect in modulating the momentum of the inhaled air, heat transfer dynamics, and particulate trapping remain poorly understood. Tortuosity of the nasal cavity in high-olfactory mammalian species, such as pigs and opossum, facilitates the formation of complex airflow patterns inside the nasal cavity, which leads to the screening of particulates from the inhaled air. We explored basic nasal features in anatomically realistic nasal pathways, including tortuosity, radius of curvature, and gap thickness; they show strong power-law correlations with body weight. Complementary inspection of tortuosity with idealized conduits reveals that this quantity is central in particle capture efficiency. Mechanistic insights into such nuances can serve as a tipping point to transforming nature-based designs into practical applications. In-depth characterization of the fluid-particle interactions in nasal cavities is necessary to uncover nose mechanistic functionalities. It is instrumental in developing new devices and filters in a number of engineering processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jisoo Yuk
- Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | | | - Aneek Chakraborty
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delft University of Technology, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Saikat Basu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007, USA
| | - Leonardo P Chamorro
- Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61820, USA
| | - Sunghwan Jung
- Department of Biological and Environmental Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
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Xi J, Si XA, Malvè M. Nasal anatomy and sniffing in respiration and olfaction of wild and domestic animals. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1172140. [PMID: 37520001 PMCID: PMC10375297 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1172140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/29/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Animals have been widely utilized as surrogate models for humans in exposure testing, infectious disease experiments, and immunology studies. However, respiratory diseases affect both humans and animals. These disorders can spontaneously affect wild and domestic animals, impacting their quality and quantity of life. The origin of such responses can primarily be traced back to the pathogens deposited in the respiratory tract. There is a lack of understanding of the transport and deposition of respirable particulate matter (bio-aerosols or viruses) in either wild or domestic animals. Moreover, local dosimetry is more relevant than the total or regionally averaged doses in assessing exposure risks or therapeutic outcomes. An accurate prediction of the total and local dosimetry is the crucial first step to quantifying the dose-response relationship, which in turn necessitates detailed knowledge of animals' respiratory tract and flow/aerosol dynamics within it. In this review, we examined the nasal anatomy and physiology (i.e., structure-function relationship) of different animals, including the dog, rat, rabbit, deer, rhombus monkey, cat, and other domestic and wild animals. Special attention was paid to the similarities and differences in the vestibular, respiratory, and olfactory regions among different species. The ventilation airflow and behaviors of inhaled aerosols were described as pertinent to the animals' mechanisms for ventilation modulation and olfaction enhancement. In particular, sniffing, a breathing maneuver that animals often practice enhancing olfaction, was examined in detail in different animals. Animal models used in COVID-19 research were discussed. The advances and challenges of using numerical modeling in place of animal studies were discussed. The application of this technique in animals is relevant for bidirectional improvements in animal and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinxiang Xi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, MA, United States
| | - Xiuhua April Si
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, California Baptist University, Riverside, CA, United States
| | - Mauro Malvè
- Department of Engineering, Public University of Navarre, Pamplona, Spain
- Biomedical Research Networking Center in Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Madrid, Spain
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Chen T, Chidarala S, Young G, Jeong SS, Nguyen SA, Edwards TS, Schlosser RJ. Association of computed tomography scores to psychophysical measures of olfaction: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Int Forum Allergy Rhinol 2023; 13:151-159. [PMID: 35771157 DOI: 10.1002/alr.23053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Revised: 06/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND While various sinus computed tomography (CT) scoring systems have been proposed and used in the literature, no single system has been identified as superior. The strength of associations between CT scoring systems and measures of olfaction also remains unclear. METHODS A systematic review of PubMed, CINAHL, Scopus, and the Cochrane Library was conducted following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Studies that reported both CT scores and measures of olfaction in a cross-sectional manner were included. RESULTS A total of 37 studies were eligible for meta-analysis. Of 8035 patients with chronic rhinosinusitis, 55.6% were male patients and 53.2% had chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps. Analysis by meta-regression was performed of Lund-Mackay (LM) versus Smell Identification Test-40 (SIT-40; 12 studies), Brief Smell Identification Test (BSIT; 10 studies), Sniffin' Sticks (SS; 10 studies), and Toyota & Takagi (T&T) olfactometry (four studies). A significant moderate association was found between LM and SIT-40 (R2 = 0.612, p < 0.001) and LM and SS (R2 = 0.612, p < 0.001). An association between LM and BSIT approached significance (R2 = 0.461, p = 0.054). No significant associations were noted between LM and T&T olfactometry and between LM and SS when stratified by nasal polyp status. CONCLUSION There is a significant moderate association of current CT scoring systems to SIT-40 and SS. Further research should focus on associations of objective measures of olfaction to CT scores of the nasal cavity, sinuses, and olfactory cleft, as well as other disease markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiffany Chen
- Medical University of South Carolina, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Charleston, South Carolina, USA
| | - Shreya Chidarala
- Medical University of South Carolina, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Charleston, South Carolina, USA
| | - Gabrielle Young
- Medical University of South Carolina, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Charleston, South Carolina, USA
| | - Seth S Jeong
- Medical University of South Carolina, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Charleston, South Carolina, USA
| | - Shaun A Nguyen
- Medical University of South Carolina, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Charleston, South Carolina, USA
| | - Thomas S Edwards
- Medical University of South Carolina, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Charleston, South Carolina, USA
| | - Rodney J Schlosser
- Medical University of South Carolina, Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Charleston, South Carolina, USA
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Smith TD, Corbin HM, King SEE, Bhatnagar KP, DeLeon VB. A comparison of diceCT and histology for determination of nasal epithelial type. PeerJ 2021; 9:e12261. [PMID: 34760352 PMCID: PMC8571959 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.12261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Diffusible iodine-based contrast-enhanced computed tomography (diceCT) has emerged as a viable tool for discriminating soft tissues in serial CT slices, which can then be used for three-dimensional analysis. This technique has some potential to supplant histology as a tool for identification of body tissues. Here, we studied the head of an adult fruit bat (Cynopterus sphinx) and a late fetal vampire bat (Desmodus rotundus) using diceCT and µCT. Subsequently, we decalcified, serially sectioned and stained the same heads. The two CT volumes were rotated so that the sectional plane of the slice series closely matched that of histological sections, yielding the ideal opportunity to relate CT observations to corresponding histology. Olfactory epithelium is typically thicker, on average, than respiratory epithelium in both bats. Thus, one investigator (SK), blind to the histological sections, examined the diceCT slice series for both bats and annotated changes in thickness of epithelium on the first ethmoturbinal (ET I), the roof of the nasal fossa, and the nasal septum. A second trial was conducted with an added criterion: radioopacity of the lamina propria as an indicator of Bowman’s glands. Then, a second investigator (TS) annotated images of matching histological sections based on microscopic observation of epithelial type, and transferred these annotations to matching CT slices. Measurements of slices annotated according to changes in epithelial thickness alone closely track measurements of slices based on histologically-informed annotations; matching histological sections confirm blind annotations were effective based on epithelial thickness alone, except for a patch of unusually thick non-OE, mistaken for OE in one of the specimens. When characteristics of the lamina propria were added in the second trial, the blind annotations excluded the thick non-OE. Moreover, in the fetal bat the use of evidence for Bowman’s glands improved detection of olfactory mucosa, perhaps because the epithelium itself was thin enough at its margins to escape detection. We conclude that diceCT can by itself be highly effective in identifying distribution of OE, especially where observations are confirmed by histology from at least one specimen of the species. Our findings also establish that iodine staining, followed by stain removal, does not interfere with subsequent histological staining of the same specimen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy D Smith
- School of Physical Therapy, Slippery Rock University, Slippery Rock, PA, USA
| | - Hayley M Corbin
- Department of Biology, Slippery Rock University, Slippery Rock University, Slippery Rock, PA, United States
| | - Scot E E King
- School of Physical Therapy, Slippery Rock University, Slippery Rock, PA, USA
| | - Kunwar P Bhatnagar
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Valerie B DeLeon
- Department of Anthropology, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States
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