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Le Cunff AL. Systematic Curiosity as an Integrative Tool for Human Flourishing: A Conceptual Review and Framework. Integr Psychol Behav Sci 2024:10.1007/s12124-024-09856-6. [PMID: 38977624 DOI: 10.1007/s12124-024-09856-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/10/2024]
Abstract
This paper reviews seventy years of theoretical research and proposes systematic curiosity as an integrative tool for human flourishing with a focus on four key aspects: firstly, acknowledge curiosity's multidimensional nature instead of harmonizing its complex taxonomy; secondly, emphasizing intentional curiosity as opposed to impulsive curiosity; thirdly, prioritizing domain-general curiosity for broader applicability across educational, organizational, and therapeutic settings; and lastly, focusing on curiosity as a developable skill rather than an innate trait. By segmenting systematic curiosity into cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components, and relating these to interactions with the self, others, and the world, the framework aims to apply across the spectrum of human experience. Furthermore, the framework encourages an exploration of various evidence-based activities for flourishing so individuals can discover the most suitable strategies for their specific context. Implications for both theory and practice are examined, limitations are discussed, and avenues for future research are suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne-Laure Le Cunff
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology & Neuroscience, King's College London, London, SE5 8AB, UK.
- Ness Labs, 40 Downham Road, London, N1 5AL, UK.
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Lee H, Pena J, Lee B, Sung C. Promoting Well-Being in Individuals With Autism: Applying Positive Psychology in Rehabilitation Counseling. REHABILITATION RESEARCH, POLICY, AND EDUCATION 2022. [DOI: 10.1891/re-21-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Positive psychology is a subdomain that addresses the importance of human strengths and personal assets in individuals’ well-being. The principles of positive psychology align with the philosophy of rehabilitation counseling by emphasizing individuals’ strengths to promote psychosocial adjustment to disability. Considering the intersection between positive psychology and rehabilitation counseling, applying the positive psychology framework to rehabilitation counseling will be a promising foundation for improvement in services and outcomes. As the number of individuals on the autism spectrum increases, more innovative services are needed to keep abreast of their needs. This article discusses how positive psychology can be applied to the population of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and explores possible practices that can be replicated by practitioners to provide quality services for this emerging disability population. Implications for education and research are also discussed.
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Flourishing and health in critical perspective: An invitation to interdisciplinary dialogue. SSM - MENTAL HEALTH 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ssmmh.2021.100045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
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Barger B, Larson LR, Torquati J, Moody E, Ogletree S, Rosenberg S. The complex relationship between greenspace and well-being in children with and without autism. Appl Psychol Health Well Being 2022; 15:705-722. [PMID: 36196049 DOI: 10.1111/aphw.12406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Greenspace (defined here as canopy coverage) positively correlates with improved well-being in typically developing individuals, but this relationship has not been established in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). To investigate this relationship, the current study merged data from the National Survey of Children's Health (2012) with the National Land Cover Database. Across typically developing children, children with ASD, and non-autistic children with special healthcare needs (CSHCN), greenspace unexpectedly negatively correlated with well-being. Further, compared with typically developing children, children with ASD or CSHCN status had lower well-being. Interestingly, typically developing children with conduct problems displayed an unexpected negative relationship (i.e. as greenspace increased whereas well-being decreased), though those without conduct problems showed no relationship. Children with ASD displayed no relationship between greenspace independent of conduct problems. CSHCN displayed non-significant trends suggesting mild positive relationships between greenspace and well-being. These data indicate the relationship between greenspace and well-being is more complex than expected and may depend on the diagnostic traits of the population studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Barger
- School of Public Health, Center for Leadership in Disability, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Lincoln R Larson
- Department of Parks, Recreation & Tourism Management, College of Natural Resources, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| | - Julia Torquati
- Department of Child, Youth and Family Studies, College of Education and Human Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska, USA
| | - Eric Moody
- Wyoming Institute for Disabilities (WIND), College of Health Sciences, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming, USA
| | - Scott Ogletree
- Department of Parks, Recreation & Tourism Management, College of Behavioral, Social, and Health Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina, USA
| | - Steven Rosenberg
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
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Zerman N, Zotti F, Chirumbolo S, Zangani A, Mauro G, Zoccante L. Insights on dental care management and prevention in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). What is new? FRONTIERS IN ORAL HEALTH 2022; 3:998831. [PMID: 36238091 PMCID: PMC9551997 DOI: 10.3389/froh.2022.998831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Autistic subjects represent a severe concern to dentistry due to the considerable difficulty in managing their oral health, maintaining routine toothbrushing, and preventing dental and periodontal problems. The social and economic burden of managing dental care in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) children is particularly cumbersome for families and public and private health expenditure, especially when children reach the dentist following a late diagnosis with evident oral health problems. An early diagnosis of ASD helps dentists better address these children's oral health. Unfortunately, insufficient attention is paid to the training and education of general pediatricians, dentists, and dental hygienists, allowing them to get to approach the different clinical aspects of ASD. Usually, children diagnosed with ASD are scheduled for dental appointments like their neurotypical peers, whereas their needs are typically complex and personalized. Scant attention is also devoted to these patients by commercial manufacturers of dental products and devices for oral hygiene and prevention of caries and periodontal diseases, leaving parents without the support and often failing when they address the oral health of autistic children. The difficulties of oral care do not derive simply from the behavior of ASD patients, as is commonly assumed, and therefore cannot be overcome solely by the patience and attention of parents and dentists. Genetics, dietary habits, sensory impairments, and cognition disorders are other causes contributing in various degrees to the impact on the mood and psychological reactions of autistic children towards dentists. How can we prevent teeth caries, periodontal disorders, and other oral health impairments by properly managing ASD children? This manuscript gives an up-to-date overview of these problems and helps to provide good remarks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicoletta Zerman
- Department of Surgery, Dentistry, Paediatrics and Gynecology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Francesca Zotti
- Department of Surgery, Dentistry, Paediatrics and Gynecology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Salvatore Chirumbolo
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Alessandro Zangani
- Department of Surgery, Dentistry, Paediatrics and Gynecology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | | | - Leonardo Zoccante
- Autism Veneto Region Center, Azienda Ospedaliera Universitaria Integrata of Verona, Verona, Italy
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Simpson K, Clark M, Adams D. Profiles and predictors of thriving in children on the autism spectrum. Child Care Health Dev 2022; 48:693-701. [PMID: 35067966 DOI: 10.1111/cch.12974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2021] [Revised: 01/13/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thriving is defined as the growth of attributes that mark a flourishing, healthy individual and include Competence, Confidence, Connectedness, Character, Caring and Contribution to self, family, community and civil society. Thriving has been linked to positive youth outcomes in neurotypical children and adolescents but has rarely been explored for individuals on the autism spectrum. METHOD This study explored the profiles and predictors of parent-reported thriving in 111 school children on the autism spectrum, aged 6 to 14 years. RESULTS Parents rated children as having relative strengths in the Caring and Connectedness dimensions and relative challenges in the Competence dimension. Stronger thriving outcomes were consistently predicted by stronger socialization scores; however, the other predictors of outcome differed by dimensions. CONCLUSION The current findings provide insight into the individual and contextual factors that predict thriving in children on the autism spectrum. As research into thriving is in its infancy, more work is needed to understand how child, family and contextual factors relate to thriving in individuals on the autism spectrum to foster positive outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kate Simpson
- Autism Centre of Excellence, School of Education and Professional Studies, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.,Griffith Institute for Educational Research, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Megan Clark
- Autism Centre of Excellence, School of Education and Professional Studies, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.,Griffith Institute for Educational Research, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Dawn Adams
- Autism Centre of Excellence, School of Education and Professional Studies, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.,Griffith Institute for Educational Research, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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Westphaln KK, Lee E, Fry-Bowers EK, Kleinman LC, Ronis SD. Examining child flourishing, family resilience, and adversity in the 2016 National Survey of Children's Health. J Pediatr Nurs 2022; 66:57-63. [PMID: 35640485 DOI: 10.1016/j.pedn.2022.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Explore factors associated with flourishing and family resilience among children aged 6 months to 5 years old in the 2016 National Survey of Children's Health (NSCH). DESIGN AND METHODS Cross-sectional analysis of the 2016 NSCH was conducted using Kleinman and Norton's Regression Risk Analysis method to derive adjusted risk measures for logistic regression models to assess factors contributing to (1) child flourishing and (2) child flourishing stratified between resilient and non-resilient families. RESULTS In multivariable models, resilient families less often reported a child with two or more lifetime ACE exposures (ARD -0.11, 95% CI -0.15, -0.08), more likely to live in a supportive neighborhood (ARD 0.08, 95% CI 0.05,0.11), and more likely to report emotional support in raising children (ARD 0.07, 95% CI 0.12, 0.40). Accounting for ACE exposures, within resilient families, child flourishing was more likely when the child lived in a supportive neighborhood (ARD 0.09, 95% CI 0.03, 0.15), received care in a patient centered medical home (ARD 0.09, 95% CI 0.02,0.15), and when parents reported having emotional support in raising children (ARD 0.10, 95% CI 0.05, 0.17) Within non-resilient families, child flourishing was more likely when parents had emotional support in raising children (ARD 0.15, 95% CI 0.04,0.27). CONCLUSION Promoting emotional support for parents may bolster family resilience and help young children to flourish despite adversity. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS Further research and innovative models of care are needed to optimize the role of pediatric primary care in promoting safe, stable, nurturing relationships and environments for children and families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristi K Westphaln
- University of California Los Angeles School of Nursing, 700 Tiverton Ave, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA; University Hospitals Rainbow Center for Child Health and Policy, 11100 Euclid Ave, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, 9501 Euclid Ave, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA; Children's Hospital of Los Angeles, 4650 W. Sunset Blvd, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USA.
| | - Eunice Lee
- Jack, Joseph, and Morton Mandel School of Applied Social Science, Case Western Reserve University, 11235 Bellflower Rd, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.
| | - Eileen K Fry-Bowers
- Hahn School of Nursing and Health Science, University of San Diego, 5998 Alcala Park, San Diego, CA 92110, USA.
| | - Lawrence C Kleinman
- Department of Pediatrics, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, 89 French Street, 2(nd) Floor, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA; Rutgers School of Public Health, 683 Hoes Ln W, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA; Child Health Institute of New Jersey, 89 French St, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA.
| | - Sarah D Ronis
- University Hospitals Rainbow Center for Child Health and Policy, 11100 Euclid Ave, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA; Department of Pediatrics, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, 9501 Euclid Ave, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.
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Barnhart S, Bode M, Gearhart MC, Maguire-Jack K. Supportive Neighborhoods, Family Resilience and Flourishing in Childhood and Adolescence. CHILDREN 2022; 9:children9040495. [PMID: 35455539 PMCID: PMC9030551 DOI: 10.3390/children9040495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Revised: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Flourishing is linked with health and well-being in childhood and adulthood. This study applied a promotive factors model to examine how neighborhood assets might benefit child and adolescent flourishing by promoting family resilience. Using data from the combined 2018 and 2019 National Survey of Children’s Health, structural equation models tested direct and indirect relationships between neighborhood physical environment, neighborhood social cohesion, family resilience, and flourishing among 18,396 children and 24,817 adolescents. After controlling for multiple covariates that may influence flourishing, the models supported that higher levels of neighborhood social cohesion were directly associated with higher levels of flourishing adolescents, and indirectly by positive associations with family resilience for both children and adolescents. No indirect effects between neighborhood physical environments and flourishing were supported by the data for either children or adolescents. However, neighborhood physical environments were positively associated with adolescent flourishing. Understanding social environmental factors that strengthen and enhance child and adolescent flourishing are critical toward designing prevention, intervention, and policy efforts that can build on the existing strengths of families and their communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheila Barnhart
- College of Social Work, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA;
- Correspondence:
| | - Molly Bode
- College of Social Work, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA;
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Lanteigne A, Genest M, Racine E. The evaluation of pediatric-adult transition programs: What place for human flourishing? SSM - MENTAL HEALTH 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ssmmh.2021.100007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
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Cho E, Baker-Ward LE, Smith SK, Barfield RC, Docherty SL. Human Flourishing in Adolescents with Cancer: Experiences of Pediatric Oncology Health Care Professionals. J Pediatr Nurs 2021; 59:10-18. [PMID: 33406441 DOI: 10.1016/j.pedn.2020.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Revised: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study explores human flourishing (HF) in adolescents with cancer (AC) as witnessed by their health care providers, and it develops a list of critical attributes associated with HF to describe the positive outcomes witnessed. DESIGN AND METHODS Our study used a qualitative descriptive design incorporating data from an open-ended electronic survey and semi-structured individual interviews with 17 pediatric oncology health care providers. RESULTS We found 3 major themes (positive forward motion, connectedness, and self-character) representing 11 critical attributes of human flourishing in AC: (1) initiative and enterprise, (2) positivity and evocativeness, (3) tranquility and maturity, (4) perseverance and tenacity, (5) compassion and empathy, (6) social engagement and connection, (7) wisdom and translation into life, (8) supportive background, (9) self-awareness and self-agency, (10) transcendence and full potential, and (11) meaning-making. CONCLUSIONS Understanding the concept of HF as it applies to the needs of AC is a step toward establishing it as a comprehensive health care goal and toward developing care provider guidelines for its promotion. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS Given the attributes of HF in AC, nurses can consider HF as an ultimate nursing care outcome and should focus on goals of care beyond disease treatment and symptoms mitigation when providing care for this population. Holistic, individualized assessment, timely care during each phase of treatment, and developmentally tailored intervention should be provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunji Cho
- Duke University School of Nursing, Durham, NC, United States of America.
| | - Lynne E Baker-Ward
- Department of Psychology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States of America
| | - Sophia K Smith
- Duke University School of Nursing, Durham, NC, United States of America
| | - Raymond C Barfield
- Department of Pediatrics, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States of America; Duke University Divinity School, Durham, NC, United States of America
| | - Sharron L Docherty
- Duke University School of Nursing, Durham, NC, United States of America; Department of Pediatrics, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States of America
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Hong JS, Choi MJ, Kim I, Algood CL, Espelage DL, Rose CA. Caregiver's difficulty paying child's healthcare bills and bullying victimization of adolescents with physical disabilities. Res Nurs Health 2021; 44:653-663. [PMID: 33993512 DOI: 10.1002/nur.22142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2020] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Guided by the ecological systems perspective, the objective of the study was to examine whether caregivers' difficulty paying their child's health-care bills is associated with bullying victimization directly and indirectly through the mediating mechanisms of caregivers' frustration, adolescents' internalizing problems, and social difficulty focusing on adolescents with physical disabilities. The 2019 National Survey of Children's Health dataset, which collected data on adolescents' and caregivers' demographic characteristics and health and well-being, was used. The study sample consisted of 368 caregivers of adolescents, 12-17 years of age with physical disabilities. No direct association between caregivers' difficulty paying their child's health-care bills and bullying victimization was found. However, caregivers' frustration and adolescents' internalizing problems were shown to have an indirect association with bullying victimization, which was mediated by difficulty making friends. In addition, adolescents' difficulty making friends was positively associated with bullying victimization. Practitioners working with adolescents with physical disabilities are encouraged to foster collaborative processes across various ecological systems of the adolescent and family to address caregivers' frustration and promote positive social and emotional development of the adolescent with physical disabilities, which can decrease their risk of bullying victimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Sung Hong
- School of Social Work, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Mi-Jin Choi
- School of Social Work, Texas State University, San Marcos, Texas, USA
| | - Isak Kim
- College of Education, Health, and Human Sciences, University of Nebraska Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska, USA
| | - Carl L Algood
- School of Social Work, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Dorothy L Espelage
- School of Education, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Chad A Rose
- College of Education, Department of Special Education, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA
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Berglund Melendez A, Malmsten M, Einberg EL, Clausson EK, Garmy P. Supporting Students with Neurodevelopment Disorders in School Health Care-School Nurses' Experiences. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:E5752. [PMID: 32784860 PMCID: PMC7459576 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17165752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Students with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are present in every school, and most likely, there are a few students in every class. School health care is responsible for providing support to all students, especially those with special needs. The aim of the study was to describe school nurses' experiences of supporting students with NDDs. A qualitative method consisting of seven focus group interviews (that included a total of 35 school nurses) in Southern Sweden was conducted. Three themes were identified in the findings: helping students with NDDs to interpret sensations, detecting early signs of distress among students with NDDs, and using an inclusive design for health education. This study highlights the importance of school nurses in identifying the needs of students with NDDs and promotes a person-centered approach to achieve a healthy and safe learning environment for all students.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Berglund Melendez
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Kristianstad University, 291 88 Kristianstad, Sweden; (A.B.M.); (M.M.); (E.-L.E.); (E.K.C.)
| | - Maria Malmsten
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Kristianstad University, 291 88 Kristianstad, Sweden; (A.B.M.); (M.M.); (E.-L.E.); (E.K.C.)
| | - Eva-Lena Einberg
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Kristianstad University, 291 88 Kristianstad, Sweden; (A.B.M.); (M.M.); (E.-L.E.); (E.K.C.)
| | - Eva K. Clausson
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Kristianstad University, 291 88 Kristianstad, Sweden; (A.B.M.); (M.M.); (E.-L.E.); (E.K.C.)
| | - Pernilla Garmy
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Kristianstad University, 291 88 Kristianstad, Sweden; (A.B.M.); (M.M.); (E.-L.E.); (E.K.C.)
- Clinical Health Promoting Centre, Lund University, 221 00 Lund, Sweden
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Participation Difficulties in Autism Spectrum Disorders and Intellectual Disabilities: Findings from the 2011 Survey of Pathway to Diagnosis and Services. J Autism Dev Disord 2020; 51:1210-1223. [PMID: 32648148 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-020-04591-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Greater understanding can increase our knowledge and intervention effectiveness for activity participation problems of children with disabilities. We examined participation difficulties of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and intellectual disabilities (ID) in the 2011 Survey of Pathway to Diagnosis and Services. We utilized propensity score matching with inverse probability of treatment weight with questions from parents of 1783 children aged 6-17 years. Friendship was the most difficult area for all children. Children with both ASD and ID experienced the most difficulty in all areas, followed by ASD alone. Reported levels of home life, friendships, classroom and leisure difficulties were moderately correlated for all children. Children who were previously diagnosed, but have no current diagnosis experienced substantial difficulties.
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