Antidiabetic properties of dietary phenolic compounds: Inhibition effects on α-amylase, aldose reductase, and α-glycosidase

Affinity gel synthesis from the p-aminobenzoic acid derivative 4-amino-2-methylbenzoic acid and purification of polyphenol oxidase from various plant sources

The polyphenol oxidase (PPO) enzyme, which causes enzymatic browning, has been repeatedly purified from fruit and vegetables by affinity chromatography. In the present research, Sepharose 4B-l-tyrosine-4-amino-2-methylbenzoic acid, a novel affinity gel for the purification of the PPO enzyme with high efficiency, was synthesized. Additionally, Sepharose 4B-l-tyrosine-p-aminobenzoic acid affinity gel, known in the literature, was also synthesized, and 9.02, 16.57, and 28.13 purification folds were obtained for the PPO enzymes of potato, mushroom, and eggplant by the reference gel. The PPO enzymes of potato, mushroom, and eggplant were purified 41.17, 64.47, and 56.78-fold from the new 4-amino-2-methylbenzoic acid gel. Following their isolation from the new affinity column, the assessment of PPO enzyme purity involved the utilization of SDS-PAGE. According to the results from SDS-PAGE and native PAGE, the molecular weight of each enzyme was 50 kDa. Then, the inhibition effects of naringin, morin hydrate, esculin hydrate, homovanillic acid, vanillic acid, phloridzin dihydrate, and p-coumaric acid phenolic compounds on purified potato, mushroom, and eggplant PPO enzyme were investigated. Among the tested phenolic compounds, morin hydrate was determined to be the most potent inhibitor on the potato (Ki: 0.07 ± 0.03 μM), mushroom (Ki: 0.7 ± 0.3 μM), and eggplant (Ki: 4.8 ± 1.2 μM) PPO enzymes. The studies found that the weakest inhibitor was homovanillic acid for the potato (Ki: 1112 ± 324 μM), mushroom (Ki: 567 ± 81 μM), and eggplant (Ki: 2016.7 ± 805.6 μM) PPO enzymes. Kinetic assays indicated that morin hydrate was a remarkable inhibitor on PPO.

Flavonoids as dual-target inhibitors against α-glucosidase and α-amylase: a systematic review of in vitro studies

Diabetes mellitus remains a major global health issue, and great attention is directed at natural therapeutics. This systematic review aimed to assess the potential of flavonoids as antidiabetic agents by investigating their inhibitory effects on α-glucosidase and α-amylase, two key enzymes involved in starch digestion. Six scientific databases (PubMed, Virtual Health Library, EMBASE, SCOPUS, Web of Science, and WHO Global Index Medicus) were searched until August 21, 2022, for in vitro studies reporting IC50 values of purified flavonoids on α-amylase and α-glucosidase, along with corresponding data for acarbose as a positive control. A total of 339 eligible articles were analyzed, resulting in the retrieval of 1643 flavonoid structures. These structures were rigorously standardized and curated, yielding 974 unique compounds, among which 177 flavonoids exhibited inhibition of both α-glucosidase and α-amylase are presented. Quality assessment utilizing a modified CONSORT checklist and structure-activity relationship (SAR) analysis were performed, revealing crucial features for the simultaneous inhibition of flavonoids against both enzymes. Moreover, the review also addressed several limitations in the current research landscape and proposed potential solutions. The curated datasets are available online at https://github.com/MedChemUMP/FDIGA .

The Effects of Apigenin in the Treatment of Diabetic Nephropathy: A Systematic Review of Non-clinical Studies

PURPOSE

Diabetes is one of the important and growing diseases in the world. Among the most common diabetic complications are renal adverse effects. The use of apigenin may prevent the development and progression of diabetes-related injuries. The current study aims to review the effects of apigenin in the treatment of diabetic nephropathy.

METHODS

In this review, a systematic search was performed based on PRISMA guidelines for obtaining all relevant studies on "the effects of apigenin against diabetic nephropathy" in various electronic databases up to September 2022. Ninety-one articles were obtained and screened in accordance with the predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Seven eligible articles were finally included in this review.

RESULTS

The experimental findings revealed that hyperglycemia led to the decreased cell viability of kidney cells and body weight loss and an increased kidney weight of rats; however, apigenin administration had a reverse effect on these evaluated parameters. It was also found that hyperglycemia could induce alterations in the biochemical and renal function-related parameters as well as histopathological injuries in kidney cells or tissue; in contrast, the apigenin administration could ameliorate the hyperglycemia-induced renal adverse effects.

CONCLUSION

The results indicated that the use of apigenin could mitigate diabetes-induced renal adverse effects, mainly through its antioxidant, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory activities. Since the findings of this study are based on experimental studies, suggesting the use of apigenin (as a nephroprotective agent) against diabetic nephropathy requires further clinical studies.

Recent Advances in Natural Products with Anti-Leukemia and Anti- Lymphoma Activities

Leukemia and lymphoma are the most common blood cancers, which pose a critical threat to the health of adults and children. The total incidence and mortality rates of both are approximately 6% globally. Compared with the expensive cost of CAR T cell therapy, natural products from animals, plants and microorganisms have the characteristics of wide-range sources and costeffectiveness in the treatment of cancer. Moreover, the drug resistance that emerged in leukemia and lymphoma treatments shows an urgent need for new drugs. However, in addition to the natural products that have been marketed in the treatment of leukemia and lymphoma, there have been a large number of studies on natural products that fight blood cancer in recent years. This review summarized the recent studies on natural compounds with anti-lymphoma and anti-leukemia activities, hoping to provide novel weapons into the drug development arsenal.

Polysaccharide extracted from cultivated Sanghuangporous vaninii spores using three-phase partitioning with enzyme/ultrasound pretreatment: Physicochemical characteristics and its biological activity in vitro

Sanghuangporous vaninii, as a valuable dietary supplement and medicinal ingredient, contains abundant bioactive polysaccharides that have health-promoting effects. In the present study, four polysaccharides (SVSPs-C, SVSPs-E, SVSPs-U, and SVSPs-E/U) were extracted for the first time from S. vaninii spores by three-phase partitioning (TPP), enzyme pretreatment before TPP (E-TPP), ultrasonic pretreatment before TPP (U-TPP), and enzyme pretreatment followed by ultrasonic before TPP (E/U-TPP) methods, respectively. Their physicochemical characteristics and in vitro pharmacological functions were determined and compared. Results showed that four TPP-based extraction methods had remarkable impacts on the extraction yield, chemical properties, monosaccharide compositions, and molecular weights (Mw) of SVSPs. Specifically, SVSPs-E/U obtained by E/U-TPP showed the highest extraction yield (25.40 %), carbohydrate content (88.50 %), and the lowest protein content (0.86 %). The four SVSPs had high-Mw (183.8-329.1 kDa) and low-Mw (23.0-156.4 kDa) fractions and mainly consisted of galactose, glucose, and mannose with different contents. In vitro bioactivities assays indicated that SVSPs-E/U possessed stronger antioxidant, hypoglycemic, hypouricemic, immunostimulatory, and antitumor activities than those of SVSPs-C, SVSPs-E, and SVSPs-U. Therefore, our results provide an efficient and promising extraction technique for bioactive polysaccharides from S. vaninii spores, as well as SVSPs had the potential to be applied in functional food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics fields.

Potential Implications of Hyperoside on Oxidative Stress-Induced Human Diseases: A Comprehensive Review

Hyperoside is a flavonol glycoside mainly found in plants of the genera Hypericum and Crataegus, and also detected in many plant species such as Abelmoschus manihot, Ribes nigrum, Rosa rugosa, Agrostis stolonifera, Apocynum venetum and Nelumbo nucifera. This compound exhibits a multitude of biological functions including anti-inflammatory, antidepressant, antioxidative, vascular protective effects and neuroprotective effects, etc. This review summarizes the quantification, original plant, chemical structure and property, structure-activity relationship, pharmacologic effect, pharmacokinetics, toxicity and clinical application of hyperoside, which will be significant for the exploitation for new drug and full utilization of this compound.

Isolation of phenolic compound from Lawsonia inermis and its prediction as anti-diabetic agent using molecular docking and molecular dynamic simulation

High blood sugar is a defining feature of chronic disease, diabetes mellitus (DM). There are numerous commercially available medications for the treatment of DM. However, managing the patient's glucose levels remain a challenge because of the gradual reduction in beta-cell function and some side effects from the long-term use of various medications. Previous research has shown that the phenolic compound of henna plant (Lawsonia inermis L.) has the potential as anti-diabetic agent since it is able to suppress the digesting of α-amylase enzyme. In these studies, the plant' phenolic compounds have been isolated and characterized using UV, IR, NMR and LC-MS methods. Furthermore, the compound interaction into the active site of the α-amylase enzyme has been analyzed using molecular docking and molecular dynamics, as well as into α-glucosidase enzyme for predicting of the affinities. The results showed that isolated compound has the molecular formula of C15H10O6 with eleven degrees of unsaturation (DBE; double bond equivalence). The DBE value corresponds to the structure of the luteolin compound having an aromatic ring (8), a carbonyl group on the side chain (1) and a ketone ring with (2). The interaction study of the isolated compound with α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzyme using molecular docking compared to the positive control (acarbose) gave binding energy of -8.03 and -8.95 kcal/mol, respectively. The molecular dynamics simulation using the MM-PBSA method, complex stability based on solvent accessible surface area (SASA), root mean square deviation (RMSD), and root mean square fluctuation (RMSF) revealed that the compound has a high affinity for receptors. The characteristics of skin permeability, absorption, and distribution using ADME-Tox model were also well predicted. The results indicate that the phenolic compound isolated from L. inermis leaf was luteolin and it has the potential as an anti-diabetic agent.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Eugenia sonderiana O. Berg leaves: Phytochemical characterization, evaluation of in vitro and in vivo antidiabetic effects, and structure-activity correlation

Several medicinal plants have drawn the attention of researchers by its phytochemical composition regarding their potential for treating chronic complications of diabetes mellitus. In this context, plants of the Myrtaceae family popularly used in Brazil for the treatment of diabetes mellitus, including Eugenia sonderiana, have shown beneficial effects due to the presence of phenolic compounds and saponins in their chemical constitution. Thus, the present work aimed to perform the phytochemical characterization of the hydroethanolic extract of E. sonderiana leaves using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS), along with in vitro and in vivo studies of antidiabetic activity. The chemical characterization revealed the presence of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, neolignans, tannins, and saponins. In addition, the extract exhibited minimum inhibitory concentrations of alpha-amylase and alpha-glycosidase higher than the acarbose in the in vitro tests. Also, the in vivo tests revealed a slight increase in body mass in diabetic rats, as well as a significant decrease in water and feed consumption provided by the extract. Regarding serum biochemical parameters, the extract showed significant activity in decreasing the levels of glucose, hepatic enzymes, and triglycerides, in addition to maintaining HDL cholesterol levels within normal ranges, protecting the cell membranes against oxidative damage. Thus, the extract of E. sonderiana leaves was considered promising pharmaceutical ingredient in the production of a phytotherapy medication.

Synthesis of amantadine clubbed N-aryl amino thiazoles as potent urease, α-amylase & α-glucosidase inhibitors, kinetic and molecular docking studies

A series of ten novel compounds were synthesized by incorporating a 1,3 thiazole core into amantadine and their structures were validated using different analytical and spectral methods such as FTIR, EI-MS, 1H NMR, and 13C NMR. The antibacterial and enzyme inhibitory properties of these newly synthesized compounds were evaluated. Remarkably, the compounds exhibited significant antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis. Additionally, the in vitro inhibitory activities of the synthesized compounds, against α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and urease were investigated. Among the tested compounds, compound 6d demonstrated potent and selective inhibition of α-amylase IC50 = 97.37 ± 1.52 μM, while acarbose was used as positive control and exhibited IC50 = 5.17 ± 0.25 μM. Compound 6d and 6e exhibited prominent inhibition against α-glucosidase IC50 = 38.73 ± 0.80 μM and 41.63 ± 0.26 μM respectively. Furthermore, compound 6d inhibited urease with exceptional efficacy IC50 = 32.76 μM, while positive control thiourea showed more prominent activity having IC50 = 1.334 μM. Molecular docking studies disclosed the binding mechanism and affinity of these new inhibitors within the binding sites of various amino acids. To investigate the association between molecular structural characteristics and inhibitory actions of synthesized derivatives, preliminary structure-activity relationship (SAR) studies were performed. These findings indicated that compounds 6a, 6c, 6d and 6e are potential candidates for hit-to-lead follow-up in the drug-discovery process for treating diabetes and hyperglycemia.

Synthesis and characterization of novel acyl hydrazones derived from vanillin as potential aldose reductase inhibitors

In the polyol pathway, aldose reductase (AR) catalyzes the formation of sorbitol from glucose. In order to detoxify some dangerous aldehydes, AR is essential. However, due to the effects of the active polyol pathway, AR overexpression in the hyperglycemic state leads to microvascular and macrovascular diabetic problems. As a result, AR inhibition has been recognized as a potential treatment for issues linked to diabetes and has been studied by numerous researchers worldwide. In the present study, a series of acyl hydrazones were obtained from the reaction of vanillin derivatized with acyl groups and phenolic Mannich bases with hydrazides containing pharmacological groups such as morpholine, piperazine, and tetrahydroisoquinoline. The resulting 21 novel acyl hydrazone compounds were investigated as an inhibitor of the AR enzyme. All the novel acyl hydrazones derived from vanillin demonstrated activity in nanomolar levels as AR inhibitors with IC50 and KI values in the range of 94.21 ± 2.33 to 430.00 ± 2.33 nM and 49.22 ± 3.64 to 897.20 ± 43.63 nM, respectively. Compounds 11c and 10b against AR enzyme activity were identified as highly potent inhibitors and showed 17.38 and 10.78-fold more effectiveness than standard drug epalrestat. The synthesized molecules' absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) effects were also assessed. The probable-binding mechanisms of these inhibitors against AR were investigated using molecular-docking simulations.

Bioinformatics Tools for the Analysis of Active Compounds Identified in Ranunculaceae Species

The chemical compounds from extracts of three Ranunculaceae species, Aconitum toxicum Rchb., Anemone nemorosa L. and Helleborus odorus Waldst. & Kit. ex Willd., respectively, were isolated using the HPLC purification technique and analyzed from a bioinformatics point of view. The classes of compounds identified based on the proportion in the rhizomes/leaves/flowers used for microwave-assisted extraction and ultrasound-assisted extraction were alkaloids and phenols. Here, the quantifying of pharmacokinetics, pharmacogenomics and pharmacodynamics helps us to identify the actual biologically active compounds. Our results showed that (i) pharmacokinetically, the compounds show good absorption at the intestinal level and high permeability at the level of the central nervous system for alkaloids; (ii) regarding pharmacogenomics, alkaloids can influence tumor sensitivity and the effectiveness of some treatments; (iii) and pharmacodynamically, the compounds of these Ranunculaceae species bind to carbonic anhydrase and aldose reductase. The results obtained showed a high affinity of the compounds in the binding solution at the level of carbonic anhydrases. Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors extracted from natural sources can represent the path to new drugs useful both in the treatment of glaucoma, but also of some renal, neurological and even neoplastic diseases. The identification of natural compounds with the role of inhibitors can have a role in different types of pathologies, both associated with studied and known receptors such as carbonic anhydrase and aldose reductase, as well as new pathologies not yet addressed.

Rice Bran: From Waste to Nutritious Food Ingredients

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a principal food for more than half of the world's people. Rice is predominantly consumed as white rice, a refined grain that is produced during the rice milling process which removes the bran and germ and leaves the starchy endosperm. Rice bran is a by-product produced from the rice milling process, which contains many bioactive compounds, for instance, phenolic compounds, tocotrienols, tocopherols, and γ-oryzanol. These bioactive compounds are thought to protect against cancer, vascular disease, and type 2 diabetes. Extraction of rice bran oil also generates various by-products including rice bran wax, defatted rice bran, filtered cake, and rice acid oil, and some of them exert bioactive substances that could be utilized as functional food ingredients. However, rice bran is often utilized as animal feed or discarded as waste. Therefore, this review aimed to discuss the role of rice bran in metabolic ailments. The bioactive constituents and food product application of rice bran were also highlighted in this study. Collectively, a better understanding of the underlying molecular mechanism and the role of these bioactive compounds exerted in the rice bran would provide a useful approach for the food industry and prevent metabolic ailments.

Novel acetic acid derivatives containing quinazolin-4(3H)-one ring: Synthesis, in vitro, and in silico evaluation of potent aldose reductase inhibitors

Aldose reductase (AR) is a crucial enzyme of the polyol pathway through which glucose is metabolized under conditions of hyperglycemia related to diabetes. A series of novel acetic acid derivatives containing quinazolin-4(3H)-one ring (1-22) was synthesized and tested for in vitro AR inhibitory effect. All the target compounds exhibited nanomolar activity against the target enzyme, and all compounds displayed higher activity as compared to the reference drug epalrestat. Among them, Compound 19, named 2-(4-[(2-[(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)methyl]-4-oxoquinazolin-3(4H)-ylimino)methyl]phenoxy)acetic acid, displayed the strongest inhibitory effect with a KI value of 61.20 ± 10.18 nM. Additionally, these compounds were investigated for activity against L929, nontumoral fibroblast cells, and MCF-7, breast cancer cells using the MTT assay. Compounds 16 and 19 showed lower toxicity against the normal L929 cells. The synthesized compounds' (1-22) absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion properties were also evaluated. Molecular docking simulations were used to look into the possible binding mechanisms of these inhibitors against AR.

Assessment of hypolipidemic and anti-inflammatory properties of walnut (Juglans regia) seed coat extract and modulates some metabolic enzymes activity in triton WR-1339-induced hyperlipidemia in rat kidney, liver, and heart

Atherosclerosis and cognitive impairment are both influenced by hyperlipidemia. Due to their high margin of safety and low cost, natural chemicals have recently attracted particular attention in the context of the treatment of disease. Hence, the purpose of this study was to investigate the possible amendatory impact of ethanol extract walnut (Juglans regia) seed coat (E-WSC) on some metabolic enzymes (glutathione reductase (GR), paraoxonase-1 (PON1), aldose reductase (AR), sorbitol dehydrogenase (SDH), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE)) activity in the liver, kidney, and heart of rats with Triton WR-1339-induced hyperlipidemia. Rats were divided into five groups: control group, HL-Control group (Triton WR-1339 400 mg/kg, i.p administered group), E- WSC + 150 (150 mg/kg,o.d given group), E- WSC + 300 (E- WSC 300 mg/kg, o.d given group) and HL+ E-WSC + 300 (Group receiving E- WSC 300 mg/kg, o.d 30 min prior to administration of Triton WR-1339 400 mg/kg, i.p). In HL-Control, AR, SDH, and BChE enzyme activity was significantly increased in all tissues compared to the control, while the activity of other studied enzymes was significantly decreased. The effects of hyperlipidemia on balance were improved and alterations in the activity of the investigated metabolic enzymes were prevented by E-WSC. As a result, promising natural compounds that can be used as adjuvant therapy in the treatment of cognitive disorders and hyperlipidemia may be found in E-WSC powder.

A new series of hydrazones as small-molecule aldose reductase inhibitors

In the search for small-molecule aldose reductase (AR) inhibitors, new tetrazole-hydrazone hybrids (1-15) were designed. An efficient procedure was employed for the synthesis of compounds 1-15. All hydrazones were subjected to an in vitro assay to assess their AR inhibitory profiles. Compounds 1-15 caused AR inhibition with K_i values ranging between 0.177 and 6.322 µM and IC₅₀ values ranging between 0.210 and 0.676 µM. 2-[(1-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)-1H-tetrazol-5-yl)thio]-N'-(4-fluorobenzylidene)acetohydrazide (4) was the most potent inhibitor of AR in this series. Compound 4 markedly inhibited AR (IC₅₀  = 0.297 µM) in a competitive manner (K_i  = 0.177 µM) compared to epalrestat (K_i  = 0.857 µM, IC₅₀  = 0.267 µM). Based on the in vitro data obtained by applying the MTT test, compound 4 showed no cytotoxic activity toward normal (NIH/3T3) cells at the tested concentrations, indicating its safety as an AR inhibitor. Compound 4 exhibited proper interactions with crucial amino acid residues within the active site of AR. In silico QikProp data of all hydrazones (1-15) were also determined to assess their pharmacokinetic profiles. Taken together, compound 4 stands out as a promising inhibitor of AR for further in vivo studies.

Molecular docking and inhibition studies of vulpinic, carnosic and usnic acids on polyol pathway enzymes

Aldose reductase (AR) and sorbitol dehydrogenase (SDH) are important enzymes of the polyol pathway. In the current study, inhibitory effects of vulpinic acid (VA) carnosic acid (CA) and usnic acid (UA) on purified AR and SDH enzymes were determined. These enzymes inhibition could be essential to prevent diabetic complications. AR and SDH enzymes were purified from sheep kidney. Then, VA, CA and UA were tested in various concentrations against these enzymes activity in vitro. K_I values were found to be as 1.46 ± 0.04, 5.13 ± 0.25 and 11.71 ± 0.27 μΜ for VA, CA and UA, respectively, for AR. K_I constants were found to be as 15.32 ± 0.34, 145.60 ± 2.17 and 213.40 ± 2.64 μΜ VA, CA and UA, respectively, for SDH. These findings indicate that VA, CA and UA could be useful in the treatment of diabetic complications.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Screening inhibitory effects of selected flavonoids on human recombinant aldose reductase enzyme: in vitro and in silico study

Aldose reductase (AR) is the first enzyme of the polyol pathway that has physiological importance under hyperglycaemic conditions. The article has been focussed on AR enzyme inhibition by selected compounds. For this purpose, the in vitro inhibitory effects of various compounds on commercially available recombinant human AR (rAR) enzyme activity were investigated. The IC₅₀ values of compounds on rAR inhibition effect were found for 6-hydroxy flavone, syringic acid, diosmetin, 6-fluoroflavone, 7-hydroxy-4'-nitroisoflavone, myricetin as 2.05, 2.97, 15.75, 16.1, 49.5, and 63 µM, respectively. 6-Hydroxy flavone and syringic acid competitively inhibited rAR with respect to the NADPH with K_i values 0.509 ± 0.036 and 0.842 ± 0.012 µM. In addition, docking studies were performed to evaluate the potential enzyme binding positions of the compounds. Our in vitro and in silico results indicated that the 6-hydroxy flavone may be a good lead compound in the development of AR inhibitors to prevent diabetic complications.

Effects of Genistein on Common Kidney Diseases

Genistein is a naturally occurring phytoestrogen (soy or soybean products) that is classified as an isoflavone, and its structure is similar to that of endogenous estrogens; therefore, genistein can exert an estrogen-like effect via estrogen receptors. Additionally, genistein is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, which enables it to block abnormal cell growth and proliferation signals through the inhibition of tyrosine kinase. Genistein is also an angiogenesis inhibitor and an antioxidant. Genistein has effects on kidney cells, some of the kidney’s physiological functions, and a variety of kidney diseases. First, genistein exerts a protective effect on normal cells by reducing the inflammatory response, inhibiting apoptosis, inhibiting oxidative stress, inhibiting remodeling, etc., but after cell injury, the protective effect of genistein decreases or even has the opposite effect. Second, genistein can regulate renin intake to maintain blood pressure balance, regulate calcium uptake to regulate Ca²⁺ and Pi balances, and reduce vasodilation to promote diuresis. Third, genistein has beneficial effects on a variety of kidney diseases (including acute kidney disease, kidney cancer, and different chronic kidney diseases), such as reducing symptoms, delaying disease progression, and improving prognosis. Therefore, this paper reviews animal and human studies on the protective effects of genistein on the kidney in vivo and in vitro to provide a reference for clinical research in the future.

Resorcinol Derivatives as Novel Aldose Reductase Inhibitors: In Silico and In Vitro Evaluation

Background:

The polyol pathway, an alternative way of carbohydrate metabolism, is activated by hyperglycemia. Aldose reductase (AR), the first and rate-limiting enzyme of the polyol pathway, is responsible for the reduction of glucose to sorbitol. Inhibiting the aldose reductase enzyme and reducing the polyol pathway is considered an effective method to prevent and postpone the onset of diabetic complications.

Objective:

Therefore, in this work, we investigate the inhibition effects of certain resorcinol derivatives and the positive control compound quercetin on the AR enzyme in vitro and in silico. These phenolic compounds, whose inhibitory effects on the AR enzyme were investigated, were also compared with known drugs in terms of their drug-like characteristics.

Methods:

Three methods were used to determine the inhibitory effects of resorcinol derivatives on recombinant human AR enzyme. After the in vitro inhibition effects were determined spectrophotometrically, the binding energy and binding modes were determined by molecular docking method. Finally, the MM-GBSA method was used to determine the free binding energies of the inhibitors for the AR enzyme.

Results:

5-pentylresorcinol compound showed the strongest inhibition effect on recombinant human AR enzyme with an IC50 value of 9.90 μM. The IC50 values of resorcinol, 5-methylresorcinol, 4- ethylresorcinol, 4-hexylresorcinol, 2-methylresorcinol, and 2,5-dimethylresorcinol compounds were determined as 49.50 μM, 43.31 μM, 19.25 μM, 17.32 μM, 28.87 μM, 57.75 μM, respectively.

Conclusion:

The results of this research showed that resorcinol compounds are effective AR inhibitors. These findings are supported by molecular docking, molecular mechanics, and ADME investigations undertaken to corroborate the experimental in vitro results.

Investigation of the multi-targeted protection potential of tannic acid against doxorubicin-induced kidney damage in rats

Doxorubicin (DOX) is an antitumor drug that is powerful but can cause worse outcomes, including nephrotoxicity, and therefore has limited clinical use. Therefore, it is necessary to identify safer agents that can minimize the damage caused by the drug without shifting the treatment performance, in addition to clarifying the underlying mechanisms of DOX-induced aberrant in vivo renal activation. In this study, we tested the prophylactic capacity and mechanisms of action of tannic acid (TA) against DOX-mediated kidney damage in rats and evaluated the nephrotoxic activity of DOX when used with TA. Rats were treated during the two weeks with cumulative (18 mg/kg with six different injections) DOX, daily TA (50 mg/kg), and the DOX + TA combination. Changes in major metabolites and components involved in antioxidant metabolism were evaluated in the kidney tissues of all animals. Further, the gene expression levels of regulatory factors that have critical importance in cell metabolism, inflammation, and apoptosis were investigated. Both biochemical and molecular examinations showed that TA improved DOX-induced dysregulations at both protein and gene levels in the kidneys. Increased lipid peroxidation and decreased glutathione levels were reversed. Consistent with oxidative stress marker metabolites, suppressed antioxidant enzyme activities and transcript levels of antioxidant system members were restored. Of note, combination treatment with TA could overcome doxorubicin-induced gene expressions markedly altered by DOX, suggesting that nephroprotection conferred by TA involved the remodeling of stress resistance, cell metabolism, inflammation, and apoptosis. Collectively, the present in vivo study suggests that TA could be used as a multitarget and effective agent for the mitigation of doxorubicin-induced nephrotoxicity without changing the therapeutic efficacy of the drug.

Some sulfonamides as aldose reductase inhibitors: therapeutic approach in diabetes

In this study, aldose reductase (AR) was purified from sheep kidney using chromatographic methods and examined the interactions between some sulfonamides and the enzyme. According to results, sulfonamides display effective inhibitor features for sheep kidney AR with IC₅₀ values in the range of 37.27-87.65 μM and K_is in the range of 25.72 ± 6.45 to 73.56 ± 17.49 μM. The sulfonamides displayed different inhibition mechanisms. It was found that studied all compounds displayed non-competitive inhibition type except for 5-chlorothiophene-2-sulfonamide (1). It showed competitive inhibition. Among these compounds, 2,5-dichlorothiophene-3-sulfonamide compound (2) was showed the most potent AR inhibitor (K_i: 25.72 ± 6.45). These compounds may be useful in the treatment of diabetic complications.

Isolation of Some Phenolic Compounds from Plantago subulata L. and Determination of Their Antidiabetic, Anticholinesterase, Antiepileptic and Antioxidant Activity

In the current study, some phenolic compounds, including acteoside, isoacteoside, echinacoside, and arenarioside purified and characterized from Plantago subulata. These compounds were tested for its antioxidant potential, including Fe³⁺ and Cu²⁺ reductive ability and Fe²⁺ chelating effects. The inhibitory effects of isolated phenolic compounds were tested towards human carbonic anhydrase I and II isoenzymes (hCA I and hCA II), butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) acetylcholinesterase (AChE), aldose reductase (AR) and α-glycosidase (α-gly). K_i values were found these compounds in range of 0.24±0.05-1.38±0.34 μM against hCA I, 0.194±0.018-1.03±0.06 μM against hCA II, 0.043±0.01-0.154±0.02 μM against AChE, 3.92±1.08-11.93±4.45 μM against BChE, 0.082±0.0008-1.68±0.42 μM against AR, and 6.93±2.74-17.17±6.70 μM against α-glycosidase. As a result, isolated compounds displayed inhibition effects against studied all metabolic enzymes. They are promising candidates for treating disorders like Alzheimer's disease, diabetes mellitus, glaucoma, leukemia, and epilepsy.

Synthesis, biological evaluation, and in silico study of novel library sulfonates containing quinazolin-4(3H)-one derivatives as potential aldose reductase inhibitors

A series of novel sulfonates containing quinazolin-4(3H)-one ring derivatives was designed to inhibit aldose reductase (ALR2, EC 1.1.1.21). Novel quinazolinone derivatives (1-21) were synthesized from the reaction of sulfonated aldehydes with 3-amino-2-alkylquinazolin-4(3H)-ones in glacial acetic acid with good yields (85%-94%). The structures of the novel molecules were characterized using IR, 1 H-NMR, 13 C-NMR, and HRMS. All the novel quinazolinones (1-21) demonstrated nanomolar levels of inhibitory activity against ALR2 (KI s are in the range of 101.50-2066.00 nM). Besides, 4-[(2-isopropyl-4-oxoquinazolin-3[4H]-ylimino)methyl]phenyl benzenesulfonate (15) showed higher inhibitor activity inhibited ALR2 up to 7.7-fold compared to epalrestat, a standard inhibitor. Binding interactions between ALR2 and quinazolinones have been investigated using Schrödinger Small-Molecule Drug Discovery Suite 2021-1, reported possible inhibitor-ALR2 interactions. Both in vitro and in silico study results suggest that these quinazolin-4(3H)-one ring derivatives (1-21) require further molecular modification to improve their drug nominee potency as an ALR2 inhibitor.

Heterocyclic compounds as a magic bullet for diabetes mellitus: a review

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a major metabolic disorder due to hyperglycemia, which is increasing all over the world. From the last two decades, the use of synthetic agents has risen due to their major involvement in curing of chronic diseases including DM. The core skeleton of drugs has been studied such as thiazolidinone, azole, chalcone, pyrrole and pyrimidine along with their derivatives. Diabetics assays have been performed in consideration of different enzymes such as α-glycosidase, α-amylase, and α-galactosidase against acarbose standard drug. The studied moieties were depicted in both models: in vivo as well as in vitro. Molecular docking of the studied compounds as antidiabetic molecules was performed with the help of Auto Dock and molecular operating environment (MOE) software. Amino acid residues Asp349, Arg312, Arg439, Asn241, Val303, Glu304, Phe158, His103, Lys422 and Thr207 that are present on the active sites of diabetic related enzymes showed interactions with ligand molecules. In this review data were organized for the synthesis of heterocyclic compounds through various routes along with their antidiabetic potential, and further studies such as pharmacokinetic and toxicology studies should be executed before going for clinical trials.

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a major metabolic disorder due to hyperglycemia, which is increasing all over the world.

Synthesis and Aldose Reductase Inhibition Effects of Novel N-Benzyl-4-Methoxyaniline Derivatives

In the current study, starting from 4-methoxyaniline, four Schiff bases were synthesized from benzaldehydes with Br and OMe. Corresponding N-benzylanilines and their derivatives were obtained from reductions (by NaBH₄ ) and substitutions (by acyl and tosyl chlorides) of these bases, respectively. The inhibitory effects of the sixteen compounds, twelve of which were novel compounds are examined. Then, we conducted molecular docking and binary QSAR studies to determine inhibitory-enzyme interactions of compounds that show an inhibitory effect. Our results reveal that methoxyanilline-derived compounds show good biological activities. The most active compound (22) has IC₅₀ values of 2.83 μM. These novel AR enzyme inhibitors may open new avenues for better AR inhibitors in the future.

Omnifarious fruit polyphenols: an omnipotent strategy to prevent and intervene diabetes and related complication?

Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic syndrome which cannot be cured. Recently, considerable interest has been focused on food ingredients to prevent and intervene in complications of diabetes. Polyphenolic compounds are one of the bioactive phytochemical constituents with various biological activities, which have drawn increasing interest in human health. Fruits are part of the polyphenol sources in daily food consumption. Fruit-derived polyphenols possess the anti-diabetic activity that has already been proved either from in vitro studies or in vivo studies. The mechanisms of fruit polyphenols in treating diabetes and related complications are under discussion. This is a comprehensive review on polyphenols from the edible parts of fruits, including those from citrus, berries, apples, cherries, mangoes, mangosteens, pomegranates, and other fruits regarding their potential benefits in preventing and treating diabetes mellitus. The signal pathways of characteristic polyphenols derived from fruits in reducing high blood glucose and intervening hyperglycemia-induced diabetic complications were summarized.

Biological effects of bis-hydrazone compounds bearing isovanillin moiety on the aldose reductase

Aldose reductase (ALR2), one of the metabolically important enzymes, catalyzes the formation of sorbitol from glucose in the polyol pathway. ALR2 inhibition is required to prevent diabetic complications. In the present study, the novel bis-hydrazone compounds bearing isovanillin moiety (GY1-12) were synthesized, and various chromatographic methods were applied to purify the ALR2 enzyme. Afterward, the inhibitory effect of the synthesized compounds on the ALR2 was screened in vitro. All the novel bis-hydrazones demonstrated activity in nanomolar levels as AR inhibitors with IC₅₀ and K_I values in the range of 12.55-35.04 nM, and 13.38-88.21 nM, respectively. Compounds GY-11, GY-7, and GY-5 against ALR2 were identified as the highly potent inhibitors, respectively, and were superior to the standard drug, epalrestat. Moreover, a comprehensive ligand-receptor interactions prediction was performed using ADME-Tox, Glide XP, and MM-GBSA modules of Schrödinger Small-Molecule Drug Discovery Suite to elucidate the novel bis-hydrazone derivatives, potential binding modes versus the ALR2. As a result, these compounds with ALR2 inhibitory effects may be potential alternative agents that can be used to treat or prevent diabetic complications.

Natural Compounds as Source of Aldose Reductase (AR) Inhibitors for the Treatment of Diabetic Complications: A Mini Review

BACKGROUND

Aldol reductase (AR) is the polyol pathway's main enzyme that portrays a crucial part in developing 'complications of diabetes' involving cataract, retinopathy, nephropathy, and neuropathy. These diabetic abnormalities are triggered tremendously via aggregation of sorbitol formation (catalyzed by AR) in the polyol pathway. Consequently, it represents an admirable therapeutic target and vast research was done for the discovery of novel molecules as potential AR inhibitors for diabetic complications.

OBJECTIVE

This review article has been planned to discuss an outline of diabetic complications, AR and its role in diabetic complications, natural compounds reported as AR inhibitors, and benefits of natural/plant derived AR inhibitors for the management of diabetic abnormalities.

RESULTS

The goal of AR inhibition remedy is to stabilize the increased flux of blood glucose and sorbitol via the 'polyol pathway' in the affected tissues. A variety of synthetic inhibitors of AR have been established such as tolrestat and sorbinil, but both of these face limitations including low permeability and health problems. Pharmaceutical industries and other scientists were also undertaking work to develop newer, active, and 'safe' AR inhibitors from natural sources. Therefore, several naturally found molecules were documented to possess a potent inhibitory action on AR activity.

CONCLUSION

Natural inhibitors of AR appeared as harmless pharmacological agents for controlling diabetic complications. The detailed literature throughout this article shows the significance of herbal extracts and phytochemicals as prospective useful AR inhibitors in treating diabetic complications.

Phenolics Profiling of Carpobrotus edulis (L.) N.E.Br. and Insights into Molecular Dynamics of Their Significance in Type 2 Diabetes Therapy and Its Retinopathy Complication

Adverse effects associated with synthetic drugs in diabetes therapy has prompted the search for novel natural lead compounds with little or no side effects. Effects of phenolic compounds from Carpobrotus edulis on carbohydrate-metabolizing enzymes through in vitro and in silico methods were assessed. Based on the half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC₅₀), the phenolic extract of the plant had significant (p < 0.05) in vitro inhibitory effect on the specific activity of alpha-amylase (0.51 mg/mL), alpha-glucosidase (0.062 mg/mL) and aldose reductase (0.75 mg/mL), compared with the reference standards (0.55, 0.72 and 7.05 mg/mL, respectively). Molecular interactions established between the 11 phenolic compounds identifiable from the HPLC chromatogram of the extract and active site residues of the enzymes revealed higher binding affinity and more structural compactness with procyanidin (−69.834 ± 6.574 kcal/mol) and 1,3-dicaffeoxyl quinic acid (−42.630 ± 4.076 kcal/mol) as potential inhibitors of alpha-amylase and alpha-glucosidase, respectively, while isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside (−45.398 ± 4.568 kcal/mol) and luteolin-7-O-beta-d-glucoside (−45.102 ± 4.024 kcal/mol) for aldose reductase relative to respective reference standards. Put together, the findings are suggestive of the compounds as potential constituents of C. edulis phenolic extract responsible for the significant hypoglycemic effect in vitro; hence, they could be exploited in the development of novel therapeutic agents for type-2 diabetes and its retinopathy complication.

Plants Secondary Metabolites as Blood Glucose-Lowering Molecules

Recently, significant advances in modern medicine and therapeutic agents have been achieved. However, the search for effective antidiabetic drugs is continuous and challenging. Over the past decades, there has been an increasing body of literature related to the effects of secondary metabolites from botanical sources on diabetes. Plants-derived metabolites including alkaloids, phenols, anthocyanins, flavonoids, stilbenoids, saponins, tannins, polysaccharides, coumarins, and terpenes can target cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in carbohydrate metabolism. In addition, they can grant protection to pancreatic beta cells from damage, repairing abnormal insulin signaling, minimizing oxidative stress and inflammation, activating AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), and inhibiting carbohydrate digestion and absorption. Studies have highlighted many bioactive naturally occurring plants' secondary metabolites as candidates against diabetes. This review summarizes the current knowledge compiled from the latest studies published during the past decade on the mechanism-based action of plants-derived secondary metabolites that can target various metabolic pathways in humans against diabetes. It is worth mentioning that the compiled data in this review will provide a guide for researchers in the field, to develop candidates into environment-friendly effective, yet safe antidiabetics.

Identification of a new class of potent aldose reductase inhibitors: Design, microwave-assisted synthesis, in vitro and in silico evaluation of 2-pyrazolines

Aldose reductase (AR) acts as a multi-disease target for the design and development of therapeutic agents for the management of diabetic complications as well as non-diabetic diseases. In the search for potent AR inhibitors, the microwave-assisted synthesis of twenty new compounds with a 1,3-diaryl-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-pyrazoline moiety as a common fragment in their structure (1-20) was carried out efficiently. Compounds 1-20 were subjected to in vitro studies, which were conducted to assess their AR inhibitory effects and cytotoxicity towards L929 mouse fibroblast (normal) cells. Among these compounds, 1-(3-bromophenyl)-3-(4-piperidinophenyl)-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-2-pyrazoline (20) was identified as the most promising AR inhibitor with an IC₅₀ value of 0.160 ± 0.005 μM exerting competitive inhibition with a K_i value of 0.019 ± 0.001 μM as compared to epalrestat (IC₅₀ = 0.279 ± 0.001 μM; K_i = 0.801 ± 0.023 μM) and quercetin (IC₅₀ = 4.120 ± 0.123 μM; K_i = 6.082 ± 0.272 μM). Compound 20 displayed cytotoxicity towards L929 cells with an IC₅₀ value of 18.75 ± 1.06 μM highlighting its safety as an AR inhibitor. Molecular docking studies suggested that π-π stacking interactions occurred between the m-bromophenyl moiety of compound 20 and Trp21. Based on in silico pharmacokinetic studies, compound 20 was found to possess favorable oral bioavailability and drug-like properties. It can be concluded that compound 20 is a potential orally bioavailable AR inhibitor for the management of diabetic complications as well as non-diabetic diseases.

Fatty acid composition, enzyme inhibitory effect, antioxidant and anticancer activity of extract from Saponaria prostrata WILLD. subsp. anatolica HEDGE

This study attempts to evaluate the antioxidant, enzyme inhibitory, and anticancer properties as well as fatty acid compositions of endemic Saponaria prostrata WILLD. subsp. anatolica HEDGE. The gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to determine the fatty acid content of methanol: dichloromethane extract from S. prostrata subsp. anatolica (SPA). Enzymatic activity was measured against acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase and α-glucosidase. DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) free radical scavenging activity and Ferric reducing antioxidant power assay (FRAP) were conducted to antioxidant properties. The anticancer effect of SPA on human MCF-7 breast cancer and human HCT116 colorectal cancer cell line was evaluated by WST-1 cell viability assay, colony formation assay and wound healing assay. In addition, human VEGF Elisa method was used to determine the anti-angiogenic effect, and the quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) method on p53, Bax and Bcl-2 mRNA levels were used to evaluate apoptosis. While high amounts of palmitic acid (40.8%), linoleic acid (17.75%) and α-linolenic acid (16.84%) were detected in the SPA, the total amount of unsaturated fatty acid (51.34%) was higher than the total amount of saturated fatty acid (48.66%). SPA displayed the most promising acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) and α-glycosidase (AG) inhibitory activities (AChE: IC₅₀: 18.03 µg/mL, BuChE: IC₅₀: 44.24 µg/mL and AG: IC₅₀: 210.85 µg/mL). The half maximum inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) of SPA in MCF-7 and HCT116 cells was determined as 259.79 µg/mL and 97.24 µg/mL, respectively. In addition, it was determined that SPA suppresses colony formation and wound closure, and suppresses angiogenesis as well as triggering apoptosis at a significant level. It is true that endemic S. prostrata subsp. anatolica is a potential source of functional food ingredients, but more analytical and in vivo experiments are needed to explore further secondary metabolite diversity and pharmacological properties.

Plant Foods Rich in Antioxidants and Human Cognition: A Systematic Review

Oxidative stress can compromise central nervous system integrity, thereby affecting cognitive ability. Consumption of plant foods rich in antioxidants could thereby protect cognition. We systematically reviewed the literature exploring the effects of antioxidant-rich plant foods on cognition. Thirty-one studies were included: 21 intervention, 4 cross-sectional (one with a cohort in prospective observation as well), and 6 prospective studies. Subjects belonged to various age classes (young, adult, and elderly). Some subjects examined were healthy, some had mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and some others were demented. Despite the different plant foods and the cognitive assessments used, the results can be summarized as follows: 7 studies reported a significant improvement in all cognitive domains examined; 19 found significant improvements only in some cognitive areas, or only for some food subsets; and 5 showed no significant improvement or no effectiveness. The impact of dietary plant antioxidants on cognition appears promising: most of the examined studies showed associations with significant beneficial effects on cognitive functions-in some cases global or only in some specific domains. There was typically an acute, preventive, or therapeutic effect in young, adult, and elderly people, whether they were healthy, demented, or affected by MCI. Their effects, however, are not attributable only to anti-oxidation.

Hypoglycemic effect of Taraxacum officinale root extract and its synergism with Radix Astragali extract

Taraxacum officinale (dandelion) and Radix Astragali are traditional medicinal and edible plants with high nutritional value. In this study, the synergistic hypoglycemic effect of DRE and Radix Astragali extract (RAE) was evaluated. Our results showed that water extract of dandelion (DRE-w), mainly containing polysaccharides (63.92 ± 1.82 mg/g), total flavonoid (2.57 ± 0.06 mg/g), total phenolic compounds (8.93 ± 0.34 mg/g), and saponins (0.54 ± 0.05 mg/g), exhibited significantly inhibitory effect on α-glucosidase and α-amylase. DRE-w and RAE had synergistic hypoglycemic effect; we found that DRE-w and its combination with RAE could relieve the state of insulin resistance in IR-HepG2 cells. The combination could more significantly increase the glucose consumption and intracellular glycogen content, and improve the activity of hexokinase and pyruvate kinase in IR-HepG2 cells. In summary, DRE and its combination with RAE can be developed as the drugs or functional foods for diabetes prevention and treatment.

A new series of 2,4-thiazolidinediones endowed with potent aldose reductase inhibitory activity

In an effort to identify potent aldose reductase (AR) inhibitors, 5-(arylidene)thiazolidine-2,4-diones (1–8), which were prepared by the solvent-free reaction of 2,4-thiazolidinedione with aromatic aldehydes in the presence of urea, were examined for their in vitro AR inhibitory activities and cytotoxicity. 5-(2-Hydroxy-3-methylbenzylidene)thiazolidine-2,4-dione (3) was the most potent AR inhibitor in this series, exerting uncompetitive inhibition with a K i value of 0.445 ± 0.013 µM. The IC50 value of compound 3 for L929 mouse fibroblast cells was determined as 8.9 ± 0.66 µM, pointing out its safety as an AR inhibitor. Molecular docking studies suggested that compound 3 exhibited good affinity to the binding site of AR (PDB ID: 4JIR). Based upon in silico absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion data, the compound is predicted to have favorable pharmacokinetic features. Taking into account the in silico and in vitro data, compound 3 stands out as a potential orally bioavailable AR inhibitor for the management of diabetic complications as well as nondiabetic diseases.

Oxy-imino saccharidic derivatives as a new structural class of aldose reductase inhibitors endowed with anti-oxidant activity

Aldose reductase is a key enzyme in the development of long term diabetic complications and its inhibition represents a viable therapeutic solution for people affected by these pathologies. Therefore, the search for effective aldose reductase inhibitors is a timely and pressing challenge. Herein we describe the access to a novel class of oxyimino derivatives, obtained by reaction of a 1,5-dicarbonyl substrate with O-(arylmethyl)hydroxylamines. The synthesised compounds proved to be active against the target enzyme. The best performing inhibitor, compound (Z)-8, proved also to reduce both cell death and the apoptotic process when tested in an in vitro model of diabetic retinopathy made of photoreceptor-like 661w cell line exposed to high-glucose medium, counteracting oxidative stress triggered by hyperglycaemic conditions.

Synthesis, characterization, crystal structure, α-glycosidase, and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory properties of 1,3-disubstituted benzimidazolium salts

Chloro-/fluorobenzyl-substituted benzimidazolium salts were synthesized from the reaction of 4-fluorobenzyl/2-chloro-4-fluorobenzyl-substituted benzimidazole and chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons. They were characterized using various spectroscopic techniques (Fourier-transform infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance) and elemental analysis. In addition, the crystal structures of the complexes 1a -d and 2b were determined by single-crystal X-ray diffraction methods. These compounds were crystallized in the triclinic crystal system with a P-1 space group. The crystal packing of all complexes is dominated by O-H⋯Cl hydrogen bonds, which link the water molecules and chloride anions, forming a chloride-water tetrameric cluster. These synthesized salts were found to be effective inhibitors for α-glycosidase and acetylcholinesterase (AChE), with K_i values ranging from 45.77 ± 6.83 to 102.61 ± 11.56 µM for α-glycosidase and 0.94 ± 0.14 to 10.24 ± 1.58 µM for AChE. AChE converts acetylcholine into choline and acetic acid, thus causing the return of a cholinergic neuron to its resting state. Discovering AChE and α-glycosidase inhibitors is one of the important ways to develop new drugs for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and diabetes.

Design, synthesis, characterization, enzymatic inhibition evaluations, and docking study of novel quinazolinone derivatives

In this study, novel quinazolinone derivatives 7a-n were synthesized and evaluated against metabolic enzymes including α-glycosidase, acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase, human carbonic anhydrase I, and II. These compounds exhibited high inhibitory activities in comparison to used standard inhibitors with K_i values in the range of 19.28-135.88 nM for α-glycosidase (K_i value for standard inhibitor = 187.71 nM), 0.68-23.01 nM for acetylcholinesterase (K_i value for standard inhibitor = 53.31 nM), 1.01-29.56 nM for butyrylcholinesterase (K_i value for standard inhibitor = 58.16 nM), 10.25-126.05 nM for human carbonic anhydrase I (K_i value for standard inhibitor = 248.18 nM), and 13.46-178.35 nM for human carbonic anhydrase II (K_i value for standard inhibitor = 323.72). Furthermore, the most potent compounds against each enzyme were selected in order to evaluate interaction modes of these compounds in the active site of the target enzyme. Cytotoxicity assay of the title compounds 7a-n against cancer cell lines MCF-7 and LNCaP demonstrated that these compounds do not show significant cytotoxic effects.