The effect of exposure to high flux density static and pulsed magnetic fields on lymphocyte function

Nanomedicine in Neuroprotection, Neuroregeneration, and Blood-Brain Barrier Modulation: A Narrative Review

Nanomedicine is a newer, promising approach to promote neuroprotection, neuroregeneration, and modulation of the blood-brain barrier. This review includes the integration of various nanomaterials in neurological disorders. In addition, gelatin-based hydrogels, which have huge potential due to biocompatibility, maintenance of porosity, and enhanced neural process outgrowth, are reviewed. Chemical modification of these hydrogels, especially with guanidine moieties, has shown improved neuron viability and underscores tailored biomaterial design in neural applications. This review further discusses strategies to modulate the blood-brain barrier-a factor critically associated with the effective delivery of drugs to the central nervous system. These advances bring supportive solutions to the solving of neurological conditions and innovative therapies for their treatment. Nanomedicine, as applied to neuroscience, presents a significant leap forward in new therapeutic strategies that might help raise the treatment and management of neurological disorders to much better levels. Our aim was to summarize the current state-of-knowledge in this field.

Advances in biotechnology and clinical therapy in the field of peripheral nerve regeneration based on magnetism

Peripheral nerve injury (PNI) is one of the most common neurological diseases. Recent studies on nerve cells have provided new ideas for the regeneration of peripheral nerves and treatment of physical trauma or degenerative disease-induced loss of sensory and motor neuron functions. Accumulating evidence suggested that magnetic fields might have a significant impact on the growth of nerve cells. Studies have investigated different magnetic field properties (static or pulsed magnetic field) and intensities, various magnetic nanoparticle-encapsulating cytokines based on superparamagnetism, magnetically functionalized nanofibers, and their relevant mechanisms and clinical applications. This review provides an overview of these aspects as well as their future developmental prospects in related fields.

Immunotropic effects in cultured human blood mononuclear cells exposed to a 900 MHz pulse-modulated microwave field

The specific biological effect of electromagnetic field (EMF) remains unknown even though devices present in our daily lives, such as smartphones and Wi-Fi antennae increase the environmental level of electromagnetic radiation. It is said that the human immune system is able to react to discrete environmental stimuli like EMF. To investigate the effect of 900 MHz microwave stimulation on the immune system our research aimed to analyze lymphocyte proliferation and observe and assess the basic immunoregulatory activities using a newly developed and improved anechoic chamber. Samples of mononuclear cells (PBMC) isolated from the blood of healthy donors were exposed to 900 MHz pulse-modulated radiofrequency radiation (20 V/m, SAR 0.024 W/kg) twice (15 min each) or left without irradiation (control group). Subsequently, the control and exposed cells were set up to determine several parameters characterizing T cell immunocompetence and monocyte immunogenic activity. Although the microcultures of PBMC exposed to radiofrequency radiation demonstrated higher immunogenic activity of monocytes (LM index) and T-cell response to concanavalin A than control cultures after first exposure, this parameter decreased after a second stimulation. Saturation of the interleukin-2 (IL-2) receptor rose significantly after the second day of exposure. On the other hand, response to mitogen dropped after EMF stimulation. The results suggest that PBMC are able to overcome stress caused by mitogens after stimulation with 900 MHz radiation.

Influence of the static magnetic field on cell response in a miniaturized optically accessible bioreactor for 3D cell culture

Hydraulic sealing is a crucial condition for the maintenance of sterility during long term operation of microfluidic bioreactors. We developed a miniaturized optically accessible bioreactor (MOAB) allowing perfused culture of 3D cellularised constructs. In the MOAB, the culture chambers are sealed by magnets that generate a weak static magnetic field (SMF). Here, we predicted computationally the exact level of SMF to which cells are subjected during culture in the MOAB and we assessed its influence on the viability, metabolic activity and gene expression of neuroblastoma-derived cells cultured up to seven days. The predicted SMF ranged from 0.32 to 0.57 T using an axial-symmetric model of a single chamber, whereas it ranged from 0.35 to 0.62 T using a 3D model of the complete device. Cell function was evaluated in SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells at 2 and 7 days of culture in the MOAB, compared to 2D monolayer, 3D non-perfused constructs, and 3D perfused constructs cultured in a modified MOAB with magnet-free sealing. We measured the cell metabolic activity normalized by the DNA content and the expression levels of heat-shock protein 70 (Hsp-70), Bcl-2 and Bax. We found that the level of SMF applied to cells in the MOAB did not influence their metabolic activity and exerted a stressful effect in 2D monolayer, not confirmed in 3D conditions, neither static not perfused. Instead, the magnets provided a significantly greater hydraulic sealing in long-term culture, thus the MOAB might be potentially exploitable for the development of reliable in vitro models of neurodegeneration.

Proliferation and differentiation of rat bone marrow stem cells by 400μT electromagnetic field

The interaction between environment electromagnetic field (EMF) and cells can effect on various physiological processes. EMF as an external inducing factor, could effect on proliferation or differentiation of cells. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of the electromagnetic field on the viability, proliferation and differentiation rate of bone marrow stem cells (BMSCs) to neuron. BMSCs were obtained from 42 adult male rats. The cells incubated and cultured in 96-wells and 6-wells plates and exposed to electromagnetic field (40 or 400μT) with a selected waveform: AC (alternative current), rectified half wave (RHW) and rectified full wave (RFW), for a week. To assess the viability and proliferation rate of treated cells, MTT assay was done, and then immunocytochemistry staining Neu N was used to evaluate cell differentiation to neuron. Results showed that EMF decreases the viability and proliferation in treated groups. But in AC group's reduction was significant. Minimum viability and proliferation rate was observed in RHW 400μT group compared with sham. Immunocytochemistry showed that EMF can induce BMSC differentiation into neuron in AC 400μT and RFW 400μT. Evidences of this research support the hypothesis that EMF can induce differentiation of BMSCs to neuron.

New perspectives in cell communication: Bioelectromagnetic interactions

This paper explores physical signalling in biological communications, the so-called biophysical pathways, and especially the role of electromagnetic signalling in cell-cell interactions. The experiments were designed to evaluate whether different cell populations physically interfere when incubated in separate Petri dishes placed in close proximity. Two different cell populations, immortalized mouse fibroblasts (NIH3T3) and adult human microvascular endothelial cells (HMVECad) were selected and seeded in separate polystyrene Petri dishes. Dishes seeded with NIH3T3 were then placed on top of those seeded with HMVECad at distances of 4mm and 11mm. A black filter was placed between dishes containing the two cell populations in another experiment, to prevent transmission of electromagnetic radiation between the two. Cell number and morphology of NIH3T3 and endothelial cells were found to be modified in dishes without the black filter, suggesting that specific signals emitted by the cells were transmitted through the polystyrene wall, affecting cell proliferation rate and morphology, even though the cells were growing in separate dishes.

The influence of a 6 mT static magnetic field on apoptotic cell phagocytosis depends on monocyte/macrophage differentiation

In a previous work we showed that a 6 mT static magnetic field (SMF) interferes with monocyte/macrophage 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced differentiation of promonocytes (U937 cells) and monocytes (THP-1 cells). In this study we investigated whether in the same cells and under the same conditions, phagocytosis of apoptotic cells is influenced by 6 mT SMF exposure. Fluid phase endocytosis and phagocytosis of latex particles were also analyzed for comparison. The results indicate that SMF exposure has effects on phagocytosis but not on fluid phase endocytosis, and that these effects are greater at the late stages of macrophage differentiation (THP-1 > U937 cells). The phagocytosis index and rate of phagocytosis decreased under SMF exposure while the number of latex particles bound to the plasma membrane of TPA-differentiated U937 and THP-1 cells increased. Conversely, the rate of phagocytosis of apoptotic cells increased under SMF exposure, while the number of apoptotic cells bound to the plasma membrane of isolated human Kupffer cells, Raw 264.7 macrophages and TPA-differentiated THP-1 and U937 cells decreased. In non-differentiated U937 and THP-1 cells, the SMF exposure enhanced the number of cell-surface bound apoptotic cells and latex beads.

Reversible effect of magnetic fields on human lymphocyte activation patterns: different sensitivity of naive and memory lymphocyte subsets

The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of 50 Hz magnetic or static magnetic fields of 0.5 mT on subsets of human CD4(+) T cells in terms of cytokine release/content, cell proliferation and intracellular free calcium concentration. CD4(+) T cells can be divided into different subsets on the basis of surface marker expression, such as CD45, and T cells can be divided into naive (CD45RA(+)) and memory (CD45RA(-)) cells. In this study, the effects of magnetic fields after 24 and 48 h of cell culture were analyzed. We found that the CD4(+)CD45RA(-) T subset were more sensitive after 2 h of exposure. Decreases in the release/content of IFN-gamma, in cell proliferation and in intracellular free calcium concentrations were observed in exposed CD4(+)CD45RA(-) T cells compared to CD4(+)CD45RA(+) T cells. The results suggest that exposure to the magnetic fields induces a delay in the response to stimulants and that modifications are rapidly reversible, at least after a short exposure.

A possible role for extra-cellular ATP in plant responses to high frequency, low amplitude electromagnetic field

In parallel to evoking the accumulation of stress-related transcripts, exposure to low level 900 MHz EMF affected the levels of ATP, the main energy molecule of the cell. Its concentration dropped rapidly (27% after 30 min) in response to EMF exposure, along with a 18% decrease in the adenylate energy charge (AEC), a good marker of cell energy status. One could interpret this decrease in ATP and AEC in a classical way, i.e., as the result of an increase in cellular energy usage, but recent work brings exciting new insights in pointing out a signalling function for ATP, especially in the stress physiology context where it could trigger both reactive oxygen species and calcium movement (this latter being involved in plant responses to EMF exposure). In this addendum, we discuss our results within this new perspective for ATP function.

The effect of pulsed electromagnetic fields on secondary skin wound healing: An experimental study

A variety of pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMFs) have already been experimentally used, in an effort to promote wound healing. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of short duration PEMF on secondary healing of full thickness skin wounds in a rat model. Full thickness skin wounds, 2 by 2 cm, were surgically inflicted in two groups of male Wistar rats, 24 animals each. In the first group (experimental group - EG), the animals were placed and immobilized in a special constructed cage. Then the animals were exposed to a short duration PEMF for 20 min daily. In the second group (control group - CG), the animals were also placed and immobilized in the same cage for the same time, but not exposed to PEMF. On days 3, 6, 9, 12, 18, and 22, following the infliction of skin wounds, the size and healing progress of each wound were recorded and evaluated by means of planimetry and histological examination. According to our findings with the planimetry, there was a statistically significant acceleration of the healing rate for the first 9 days in EG, whereas a qualitative improvement of healing progress was identified by histological examination at all time points, compared to the control group.

NMR exposure sensitizes tumor cells to apoptosis

NMR technology has dramatically contributed to the revolution of image diagnostic. NMR apparatuses use combinations of microwaves over a homogeneous strong (1 Tesla) static magnetic field. We had previously shown that low intensity (0.3-66 mT) static magnetic fields deeply affect apoptosis in a Ca2+ dependent fashion (Fanelli et al., 1999 FASEBJ., 13;95-102). The rationale of the present study is to examine whether exposure to the static magnetic fields of NMR can affect apoptosis induced on reporter tumor cells of haematopoietic origin. The impressive result was the strong increase (1.8-2.5 fold) of damage-induced apoptosis by NMR. This potentiation is due to cytosolic Ca2+ overload consequent to NMR-promoted Ca2+ influx, since it is prevented by intracellular (BAPTA-AM) and extracellular (EGTA) Ca2+ chelation or by inhibition of plasma membrane L-type Ca2+ channels. Three-days follow up of treated cultures shows that NMR decrease long term cell survival, thus increasing the efficiency of cytocidal treatments. Importantly, mononuclear white blood cells are not sensitised to apoptosis by NMR, showing that NMR may increase the differential cytotoxicity of antitumor drugs on tumor vs normal cells. This strong, differential potentiating effect of NMR on tumor cell apoptosis may have important implications, being in fact a possible adjuvant for antitumor therapies.

Effects of static magnetic fields at the cellular level

There have been few studies on the effects of static magnetic fields at the cellular level, compared to those of extremely low frequency magnetic fields. Past studies have shown that a static magnetic field alone does not have a lethal effect on the basic properties of cell growth and survival under normal culture conditions, regardless of the magnetic density. Most but not all studies have also suggested that a static magnetic field has no effect on changes in cell growth rate. It has also been shown that cell cycle distribution is not influenced by extremely strong static magnetic fields (up to a maximum of 10 T). A further area of interest is whether static magnetic fields cause DNA damage, which can be evaluated by determination of the frequency of micronucleus formation. The presence or absence of such micronuclei can confirm whether a particular treatment damages cellular DNA. This method has been used to confirm that a static magnetic field alone has no such effect. However, the frequency of micronucleus formation increases significantly when certain treatments (e.g., X-irradiation) are given prior to exposure to a 10 T static magnetic field. It has also been reported that treatment with trace amounts of ferrous ions in the cell culture medium and exposure to a static magnetic field increases DNA damage, which is detected using the comet assay. In addition, many studies have found a strong magnetic field that can induce orientation phenomena in cell culture.

Bioeffects of moderate-intensity static magnetic fields on cell cultures

The interaction of static magnetic fields (SMFs) with living organisms is a rapidly growing field of investigation. However, despite the increasing number of studies on the effects of the interaction of SMFs with living organisms, many gaps in our knowledge still remain. One reason why it is extremely important to deeply understand the true mode of action of MFs on living organisms, is the need to protect human health in consideration of the probable future introduction of new technologies such as magnetically levitated trains and the therapeutical use of MFs (e.g. magnetic resonance imaging, MRI, coupling of MF exposure with chemotherapy). The lack of knowledge of the morphological modifications brought about by exposure to moderate-intensity SMFs prompted us to investigate the bioeffects of 6mT SMFs on different cell types, by means of light and electron microscopy, confocal laser scanning microscopy and immuno- or cytochemistry. In the present article we report our own and other data from the literature on the morphological studies of the bioeffects of moderate-intensity SMFs. We focus on morphological modifications related to cell shape, cell surface, cytoskeleton, and plasma membrane expression of molecules and carbohydrate residues. The effects of exposure to moderate-intensity SMF for 24 or 48 h, on apoptosis, on apoptotic related gene products, on macrophagic differentiation and on phagocytosis of apoptotic cells in primary cell cultures (transformed or stabilized cell lines) will be also discussed. Moderate-intensity (6mT) SMFs induced modifications of cell shape, cell surface and cytoskeleton, progressively achieved during the entire period of exposure. In general, at the end of the exposure period, the cells had a less flat shape due to partial detachment from the culture dishes or a more round-elongated shape (in relation to adhesion growth or in suspension growth respectively) with many irregular lamellar microvilli, while the morphology of the organelles remained unmodified. In parallel with cell shape changes, the microfilaments and microtubules, as well as the quantity and distribution of surface ConA-FITC and Ricinus Comm.-FITC labelling sites, were modified in a time-dependent manner. Apoptosis was influenced in a cell type-dependent manner: for some cells spontaneous apoptosis decreased while, for others, it increased to about 20% after 24h of continuous exposure. The induction of apoptosis was likely due to the increment of [Ca(2+)]i during exposure. Cell proliferation was only slightly affected. Indeed, in addition to the cell type, the time of exposure was also an important factor in the intensity of the effects produced. Both apoptotic rate and cell and surface shape were influenced by exposure to SMFs when simultaneously administered with apoptogenic drugs. Apoptotic cells were cleared by an efficient and fast process of phagocytosis mediated by specific epitopes, externalized during the formation of the apoptotic cells, on the dead cells and by specific receptors on the phagocytes (both "professional" and "nonprofessional"). The recognition of apoptotic lymphocytes as well as of control cells exposed for at least 24h to 6mT SMF by liver sinusoidal cells was influenced by the cell surface modifications which both apoptotic or normal exposed cells underwent during the induction of apoptosis or SMF exposure. The degree of macrophagic differentiation of human pro-monocytic U937 cells induced by phorbol ester was decreased by exposure to 6mT SMFs, with a consequent fall in cell adhesion and increased polarization of pseudopodia and cytoplasmic protrusions. Differentiation alone, or in combination with exposure to SMFs, affects distribution and quantity of cell surface carbohydrate residues, surface expression of markers of macrophage differentiation, and phagocytic capability. The increasing amount of data reporting on the bioeffects of SMFs is leading researchers to an understanding of how important it is to fully understand the mode of action of MFs on living organisms. Indeed, even if the perturbations of biological systems by SMFs are sublethal at shorter times of exposure, these perturbations could, especially at longer times of exposure, evolve into a progressive accumulation of modifications, whose ultimate effects still need to be clarified.