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Zheng Q, Zhang Y, Wang Y, Yu G. Removal of antibiotic resistant bacteria and plasmid-encoded antibiotic resistance genes in water by ozonation and electro-peroxone process. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 319:138039. [PMID: 36738938 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The electro-peroxone (EP) process is an electricity-based oxidation process enabled by electrochemically generating hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) from cathodic oxygen (O2) reduction during ozonation. In this study, the removal of antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) and plasmid-encoded antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) during groundwater treatment by ozonation alone and the EP process was compared. Owing to the H2O2-promoted ozone (O3) conversion to hydroxyl radicals (•OH), higher •OH exposures, but lower O3 exposures were obtained during the EP process than ozonation alone. This opposite change of O3 and •OH exposures decreases the efficiency of ARB inactivation and ARG degradation moderately during the EP process compared with ozonation alone. These results suggest that regarding ARB inactivation and ARG degradation, the reduction of O3 exposures may not be fully counterbalanced by the rise of •OH exposures when changing ozonation to the EP process. However, due to the rise of •OH exposure, plasmid DNA was more effectively cleaved to shorter fragments during the EP process than ozonation alone, which may decrease the risks of natural transformation of ARGs. These findings highlight that the influence of the EP process on ARB and ARG inactivation needs to be considered when implementing this process in water treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quan Zheng
- School of Environment, Beijing Key Laboratory for Emerging Organic Contaminants Control, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yinqiao Zhang
- School of Environment, Beijing Key Laboratory for Emerging Organic Contaminants Control, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yujue Wang
- School of Environment, Beijing Key Laboratory for Emerging Organic Contaminants Control, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
| | - Gang Yu
- School of Environment, Beijing Key Laboratory for Emerging Organic Contaminants Control, State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
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2
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Borer B, Or D. Bacterial age distribution in soil - Generational gaps in adjacent hot and cold spots. PLoS Comput Biol 2022; 18:e1009857. [PMID: 35213536 PMCID: PMC8906644 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1009857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Revised: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Resource patchiness and aqueous phase fragmentation in soil may induce large differences local growth conditions at submillimeter scales. These are translated to vast differences in bacterial age from cells dividing every thirty minutes in close proximity to plant roots to very old cells experiencing negligible growth in adjacent nutrient poor patches. In this study, we link bacterial population demographics with localized soil and hydration conditions to predict emerging generation time distributions and estimate mean bacterial cell ages using mechanistic and heuristic models of bacterial life in soil. Results show heavy-tailed distributions of generation times that resemble a power law for certain conditions, suggesting that we may find bacterial cells of vastly different ages living side by side within small soil volumes. Our results imply that individual bacteria may exist concurrently with all of their ancestors, resulting in an archive of bacterial cells with traits that have been gained (and lost) throughout time-a feature unique to microbial life. This reservoir of bacterial strains and the potential for the reemergence of rare strains with specific functions may be critical for ecosystem stability and function.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dani Or
- ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
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3
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Calderón-Franco D, Lin Q, van Loosdrecht MCM, Abbas B, Weissbrodt DG. Anticipating Xenogenic Pollution at the Source: Impact of Sterilizations on DNA Release From Microbial Cultures. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:171. [PMID: 32232035 PMCID: PMC7082761 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The dissemination of DNA and xenogenic elements across waterways is under scientific and public spotlight due to new gene-editing tools, such as do-it-yourself (DIY) CRISPR-Cas kits deployable at kitchen table. Over decades, prevention of spread of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), antimicrobial resistances (AMR), and pathogens from transgenic systems has focused on microbial inactivation. However, sterilization methods have not been assessed for DNA release and integrity. Here, we investigated the fate of intracellular DNA from cultures of model prokaryotic (Escherichia coli) and eukaryotic (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) cells that are traditionally used as microbial chassis for genetic modifications. DNA release was tracked during exposure of these cultures to conventional sterilization methods. Autoclaving, disinfection with glutaraldehyde, and microwaving are used to inactivate broths, healthcare equipment, and GMOs produced at kitchen table. DNA fragmentation and PCR-ability were measured on top of cell viability and morphology. Impact of these methods on DNA integrity was verified on a template of free λ DNA. Intense regular autoclaving (121°C, 20 min) resulted in the most severe DNA degradation and lowest household gene amplification capacity: 1.28 ± 0.11, 2.08 ± 0.03, and 4.96 ± 0.28 logs differences to the non-treated controls were measured from E. coli, S. cerevisiae, and λ DNA, respectively. Microwaving exerted strong DNA fragmentation after 100 s of exposure when free λ DNA was in solution (3.23 ± 0.06 logs difference) but a minor effect was observed when DNA was released from E. coli and S. cerevisiae (0.24 ± 0.14 and 1.32 ± 0.02 logs differences with the control, respectively). Glutaraldehyde prevented DNA leakage by preserving cell structures, while DNA integrity was not altered. The results show that current sterilization methods are effective on microorganism inactivation but do not safeguard an aqueous residue exempt of biologically reusable xenogenic material, being regular autoclaving the most severe DNA-affecting method. Reappraisal of sterilization methods is required along with risk assessment on the emission of DNA fragments in urban systems and nature.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - David G. Weissbrodt
- Department of Biotechnology, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
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4
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Zhang X, Li J, Yao MC, Fan WY, Yang CW, Yuan L, Sheng GP. Unrecognized Contributions of Dissolved Organic Matter Inducing Photodamages to the Decay of Extracellular DNA in Waters. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:1614-1622. [PMID: 31976657 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b06029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular DNA (eDNA), which is derived from lysis or secretion of cells, is ubiquitous in various environments and crucial for gene dissemination, bacterial metabolism, biofilm integrity, and aquatic monitoring. However, these processes are largely influenced by damage to eDNA. Photodamage to eDNA, one of the most important types of DNA damage in natural waters, thus far remains unclear. In particular, the roles of the ubiquitous dissolved organic matter (DOM) in this process have yet to be determined. In this study, eDNA photodamage, including both deoxynucleoside damage and strand breaks, proved to be significantly influenced by DOM. DOM competed with eDNA for photons to inhibit the direct photodamage of eDNA. Nevertheless, DOM was photosensitized to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) (i.e., hydroxyl radicals (·OH) and singlet oxygen (1O2)) to enhance the indirect photodamage of eDNA. The ·OH induced damage to four deoxynucleosides and strand breaks, and the 1O2 substantially enhanced deoxyguanosine damage. The presence of DOM changed the main photodamage products of deoxynucleosides, additional oxidation products induced by ROS formed besides pyrimidine dimers caused by UV. Results indicate that DOM-mediated indirect photodamage contributed significantly to eDNA photodamage in most water bodies. This study revealed the previously unrecognized crucial role of DOM in the decay of eDNA in waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Department of Applied Chemistry , University of Science and Technology of China , Hefei 230026 , China
| | - Jing Li
- School of Life Sciences , University of Science and Technology of China , Hefei 230026 , China
| | - Mu-Cen Yao
- School of Life Sciences , University of Science and Technology of China , Hefei 230026 , China
| | - Wen-Yuan Fan
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Department of Applied Chemistry , University of Science and Technology of China , Hefei 230026 , China
| | - Chuan-Wang Yang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Department of Applied Chemistry , University of Science and Technology of China , Hefei 230026 , China
| | - Li Yuan
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Department of Applied Chemistry , University of Science and Technology of China , Hefei 230026 , China
| | - Guo-Ping Sheng
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Department of Applied Chemistry , University of Science and Technology of China , Hefei 230026 , China
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5
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Sebastián M, Gasol JM. Visualization is crucial for understanding microbial processes in the ocean. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019; 374:20190083. [PMID: 31587650 PMCID: PMC6792457 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent developments in community and single-cell genomic approaches have provided an unprecedented amount of information on the ecology of microbes in the aquatic environment. However, linkages between each specific microbe's identity and their in situ level of activity (be it growth, division or just metabolic activity) are much more scarce. The ultimate goal of marine microbial ecology is to understand how the environment determines the types of different microbes in nature, their function, morphology and cell-to-cell interactions and to do so we should gather three levels of information, the genomic (including identity), the functional (activity or growth), and the morphological, and for as many individual cells as possible. We present a brief overview of methodologies applied to address single-cell activity in marine prokaryotes, together with a discussion of the difficulties in identifying and categorizing activity and growth. We then provide and discuss some examples showing how visualization has been pivotal for challenging established paradigms and for understanding the role of microbes in the environment, unveiling processes and interactions that otherwise would have been overlooked. We conclude by stating that more effort should be directed towards integrating visualization in future approaches if we want to gain a comprehensive insight into how microbes contribute to the functioning of ecosystems. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Single cell ecology'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Sebastián
- Instituto de Oceanografía y Cambio Global, IOCAG, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), Spain
| | - Josep M. Gasol
- Institut de Ciències del Mar, CSIC, Barcelona, Catalunya, Spain
- Centre for Marine Ecosystems Research, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, Western Australia, Australia
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6
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Li Z, Bock R. Rapid functional activation of a horizontally transferred eukaryotic gene in a bacterial genome in the absence of selection. Nucleic Acids Res 2019; 47:6351-6359. [PMID: 31106341 PMCID: PMC6614815 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkz370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2019] [Revised: 04/07/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Horizontal gene transfer has occurred between organisms of all domains of life and contributed substantially to genome evolution in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Phylogenetic evidence suggests that eukaryotic genes horizontally transferred to bacteria provided useful new gene functions that improved metabolic plasticity and facilitated adaptation to new environments. How these eukaryotic genes evolved into functional bacterial genes is not known. Here, we have conducted a genetic screen to identify the mechanisms involved in functional activation of a eukaryotic gene after its transfer into a bacterial genome. We integrated a eukaryotic selectable marker gene cassette driven by expression elements from the red alga Porphyridium purpureum into the genome of Escherichia coli. Following growth under non-selective conditions, gene activation events were indentified by antibiotic selection. We show that gene activation in the bacterial recipient occurs at high frequency and involves two major types of spontaneous mutations: deletion and gene amplification. We further show that both mechanisms result in promoter capture and are frequently triggered by microhomology-mediated recombination. Our data suggest that horizontally transferred genes have a high probability of acquiring functionality, resulting in their maintenance if they confer a selective advantage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhichao Li
- Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, Am Mühlenberg 1, D-14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Ralph Bock
- Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, Am Mühlenberg 1, D-14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
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7
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Bock R. Witnessing Genome Evolution: Experimental Reconstruction of Endosymbiotic and Horizontal Gene Transfer. Annu Rev Genet 2017; 51:1-22. [PMID: 28846455 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-genet-120215-035329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Present day mitochondria and plastids (chloroplasts) evolved from formerly free-living bacteria that were acquired through endosymbiosis more than a billion years ago. Conversion of the bacterial endosymbionts into cell organelles involved the massive translocation of genetic material from the organellar genomes to the nucleus. The development of transformation technologies for organellar genomes has made it possible to reconstruct this endosymbiotic gene transfer in laboratory experiments and study the mechanisms involved. Recently, the horizontal transfer of genetic information between organisms has also become amenable to experimental investigation. It led to the discovery of horizontal genome transfer as an asexual process generating new species and new combinations of nuclear and organellar genomes. This review describes experimental approaches towards studying endosymbiotic and horizontal gene transfer processes, discusses the new knowledge gained from these approaches about both the evolutionary significance of gene transfer and the underlying molecular mechanisms, and highlights exciting possibilities to exploit gene and genome transfer in biotechnology and synthetic biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ralph Bock
- Max-Planck-Institut für Molekulare Pflanzenphysiologie, D-14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany;
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8
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Ibáñez de Aldecoa AL, Zafra O, González-Pastor JE. Mechanisms and Regulation of Extracellular DNA Release and Its Biological Roles in Microbial Communities. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:1390. [PMID: 28798731 PMCID: PMC5527159 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.01390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The capacity to release genetic material into the extracellular medium has been reported in cultures of numerous species of bacteria, archaea, and fungi, and also in the context of multicellular microbial communities such as biofilms. Moreover, extracellular DNA (eDNA) of microbial origin is widespread in natural aquatic and terrestrial environments. Different specific mechanisms are involved in eDNA release, such as autolysis and active secretion, as well as through its association with membrane vesicles. It is noteworthy that in microorganisms, in which DNA release has been studied in detail, the production of eDNA is coordinated by the population when it reaches a certain cell density, and is induced in a subpopulation in response to the accumulation of quorum sensing signals. Interestingly, in several bacteria there is also a relationship between eDNA release and the development of natural competence (the ability to take up DNA from the environment), which is also controlled by quorum sensing. Then, what is the biological function of eDNA? A common biological role has not been proposed, since different functions have been reported depending on the microorganism. However, it seems to be important in biofilm formation, can be used as a nutrient source, and could be involved in DNA damage repair and gene transfer. This review covers several aspects of eDNA research: (i) its occurrence and distribution in natural environments, (ii) the mechanisms and regulation of its release in cultured microorganisms, and (iii) its biological roles. In addition, we propose that eDNA release could be considered a social behavior, based on its quorum sensing-dependent regulation and on the described functions of eDNA in the context of microbial communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alejandra L Ibáñez de Aldecoa
- Laboratory of Molecular Adaptation, Department of Molecular Evolution, Centro de Astrobiología (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas/Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial)Madrid, Spain
| | - Olga Zafra
- Experimental Sciences Faculty, Francisco de Vitoria UniversityMadrid, Spain
| | - José E González-Pastor
- Laboratory of Molecular Adaptation, Department of Molecular Evolution, Centro de Astrobiología (Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas/Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial)Madrid, Spain
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9
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Li JY, Pan LQ, Miao JJ, Xu RY, Xu WJ. De novo assembly and characterization of the ovarian transcriptome reveal mechanisms of the final maturation stage in Chinese scallop Chlamys farreri. COMPARATIVE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY D-GENOMICS & PROTEOMICS 2016; 20:118-124. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbd.2016.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2015] [Revised: 08/10/2016] [Accepted: 08/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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10
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van Dijk B, Hogeweg P. In Silico Gene-Level Evolution Explains Microbial Population Diversity through Differential Gene Mobility. Genome Biol Evol 2015; 8:176-88. [PMID: 26710854 PMCID: PMC4758251 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evv255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial communities can show astonishing ecological and phylogenetic diversity. What is the role of pervasive horizontal gene transfer (HGT) in shaping this diversity in the presence of clonally expanding “killer strains”? Does HGT of antibiotic production and resistance genes erase phylogenetic structure? To answer these questions, we study a spatial eco-evolutionary model of prokaryotes, inspired by recent findings on antagonistic interactions in Vibrionaceae populations. We find toxin genes evolve to be highly mobile, whereas resistance genes minimize mobility. This differential gene mobility is a requirement to maintain a diverse and dynamic ecosystem. The resistance gene repertoire acts as a core genome that corresponds to the phylogeny of cells, whereas toxin genes do not follow this phylogeny and have a patchy distribution. We also show that interstrain HGT makes the emergent phylogenetic structure robust to selective sweeps. Finally, in this evolved ecosystem we observe antagonistic interactions between, rather than within, spatially structure subpopulations, as has been previously observed for prokaryotes in soils and oceans. In contrast to ascribing the diversification and evolution of microbial communities to clonal dynamics, we show that multilevel evolution can elegantly explain the observed phylogenetic structure and ecosystem diversity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bram van Dijk
- Department of Theoretical Biology and Bioinformatics, Utrecht University, The Netherlands
| | - Paulien Hogeweg
- Department of Theoretical Biology and Bioinformatics, Utrecht University, The Netherlands
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11
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Torti A, Lever MA, Jørgensen BB. Origin, dynamics, and implications of extracellular DNA pools in marine sediments. Mar Genomics 2015; 24 Pt 3:185-96. [DOI: 10.1016/j.margen.2015.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2015] [Accepted: 08/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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12
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Jheeta S. The Routes of Emergence of Life from LUCA during the RNA and Viral World: A Conspectus. Life (Basel) 2015; 5:1445-53. [PMID: 26057871 PMCID: PMC4500147 DOI: 10.3390/life5021445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2015] [Accepted: 05/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
How did life emerge on Earth? The aim of the Network of Researchers on Horizontal Gene Transfer and the Last Universal Cellular Ancestor (NoR HGT & LUCA) is to understand how the genetics of LUCAs were reorganised prior to the advent of the three domains of life. This paper reports the research of eminent scientists who have come together within the network and are making significant contributions to the wider knowledge base surrounding this, one of science’s remaining mysteries. I also report on their relevance in relation to LUCAs and life’s origins, as well as ask a question: what next?
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Affiliation(s)
- Sohan Jheeta
- Network of Researchers on Horizontal Gene Transfer and the Last Universal Cellular Ancestor (NoR HGT & LUCA †), 1 Scott Hall Crescent, Leeds LS7 3RB, UK.
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13
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Stilling RM, Bordenstein SR, Dinan TG, Cryan JF. Friends with social benefits: host-microbe interactions as a driver of brain evolution and development? Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2014; 4:147. [PMID: 25401092 PMCID: PMC4212686 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2014.00147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2014] [Accepted: 10/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The tight association of the human body with trillions of colonizing microbes that we observe today is the result of a long evolutionary history. Only very recently have we started to understand how this symbiosis also affects brain function and behavior. In this hypothesis and theory article, we propose how host-microbe associations potentially influenced mammalian brain evolution and development. In particular, we explore the integration of human brain development with evolution, symbiosis, and RNA biology, which together represent a “social triangle” that drives human social behavior and cognition. We argue that, in order to understand how inter-kingdom communication can affect brain adaptation and plasticity, it is inevitable to consider epigenetic mechanisms as important mediators of genome-microbiome interactions on an individual as well as a transgenerational time scale. Finally, we unite these interpretations with the hologenome theory of evolution. Taken together, we propose a tighter integration of neuroscience fields with host-associated microbiology by taking an evolutionary perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roman M Stilling
- Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork Cork, Ireland ; Department Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork Cork, Ireland
| | - Seth R Bordenstein
- Departments of Biological Sciences and Pathology, Microbiology, and Immunology, Vanderbilt University Nashville, TN, USA
| | - Timothy G Dinan
- Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork Cork, Ireland ; Department of Psychiatry, University College Cork Cork, Ireland
| | - John F Cryan
- Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork Cork, Ireland ; Department Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork Cork, Ireland
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