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Ota T, Takao T, Iwai R, Moriwaki T, Kitaguchi Y, Fujisawa Y, Yamada D, Kimata Y, Takarada T. Fabrication of shape-designable cartilage from human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived chondroprogenitors using a cell self-aggregation technique. Biomed Mater 2023; 18:065019. [PMID: 37827163 DOI: 10.1088/1748-605x/ad02d1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023]
Abstract
With the advancement of tissue engineering technologies, implantable materials have been developed for use in facial plastic surgery, including auriculoplasty and rhinoplasty. Tissue-engineered cartilage comprising only cells and cell-produced extracellular matrix is considered valuable as there is no need to consider problems associated with scaffold absorption or immune responses commonly related to conventional artificial materials. However, it is exceedingly difficult to produce large-sized complex shapes of cartilage without the use of scaffolds. In this study, we describe the production of shape-designable cartilage using a novel cell self-aggregation technique (CAT) and chondroprogenitor cells derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells as the source. The method described does not require special equipment such as bio-3D printers, and the produced tissue can be induced into well-matured cartilage with abundant cartilage matrixin vitro. Using CAT, we were able to generate cartilage in the form of rings or tubes with adjustable inner diameter and curvature, over a range of several centimeters, without the use of scaffolds. Thein vitrofabrication of shape-designable cartilage using CAT is a promising development in facial plastic surgery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoyuki Ota
- Department of Regenerative Science, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1, Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama-shi, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1, Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama-shi, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | - Tomoka Takao
- Department of Regenerative Science, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1, Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama-shi, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Iwai
- Okayama University of Science, Institute of Frontier Science and Technology, 1-1, Ridai-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama-shi, Okayama 700-0005, Japan
| | - Takeshi Moriwaki
- Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Hirosaki University, 3, Bunkyo-cho, Hirosaki-shi, Aomori 036-8561, Japan
| | - Yohei Kitaguchi
- Department of Regenerative Science, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1, Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama-shi, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1, Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama-shi, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | - Yuki Fujisawa
- Department of Regenerative Science, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1, Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama-shi, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | - Daisuke Yamada
- Department of Regenerative Science, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1, Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama-shi, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Kimata
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1, Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama-shi, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
| | - Takeshi Takarada
- Department of Regenerative Science, Okayama University Graduate School of Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 2-5-1, Shikata-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama-shi, Okayama 700-8558, Japan
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2
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Pettenuzzo S, Arduino A, Belluzzi E, Pozzuoli A, Fontanella CG, Ruggieri P, Salomoni V, Majorana C, Berardo A. Biomechanics of Chondrocytes and Chondrons in Healthy Conditions and Osteoarthritis: A Review of the Mechanical Characterisations at the Microscale. Biomedicines 2023; 11:1942. [PMID: 37509581 PMCID: PMC10377681 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11071942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Biomechanical studies are expanding across a variety of fields, from biomedicine to biomedical engineering. From the molecular to the system level, mechanical stimuli are crucial regulators of the development of organs and tissues, their growth and related processes such as remodelling, regeneration or disease. When dealing with cell mechanics, various experimental techniques have been developed to analyse the passive response of cells; however, cell variability and the extraction process, complex experimental procedures and different models and assumptions may affect the resulting mechanical properties. For these purposes, this review was aimed at collecting the available literature focused on experimental chondrocyte and chondron biomechanics with direct connection to their biochemical functions and activities, in order to point out important information regarding the planning of an experimental test or a comparison with the available results. In particular, this review highlighted (i) the most common experimental techniques used, (ii) the results and models adopted by different authors, (iii) a critical perspective on features that could affect the results and finally (iv) the quantification of structural and mechanical changes due to a degenerative pathology such as osteoarthritis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Pettenuzzo
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Alessandro Arduino
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Elisa Belluzzi
- Musculoskeletal Pathology and Oncology Laboratory, Department of Surgery, Oncology and Gastroenterology, University of Padova (DiSCOG), Via Giustiniani 3, 35128 Padova, Italy
- Orthopedics and Orthopedic Oncology, Department of Surgery, Oncology and Gastroenterology, University of Padova (DiSCOG), 35128 Padova, Italy
| | - Assunta Pozzuoli
- Musculoskeletal Pathology and Oncology Laboratory, Department of Surgery, Oncology and Gastroenterology, University of Padova (DiSCOG), Via Giustiniani 3, 35128 Padova, Italy
- Orthopedics and Orthopedic Oncology, Department of Surgery, Oncology and Gastroenterology, University of Padova (DiSCOG), 35128 Padova, Italy
| | | | - Pietro Ruggieri
- Orthopedics and Orthopedic Oncology, Department of Surgery, Oncology and Gastroenterology, University of Padova (DiSCOG), 35128 Padova, Italy
| | - Valentina Salomoni
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
- Department of Management and Engineering (DTG), Stradella S. Nicola 3, 36100 Vicenza, Italy
| | - Carmelo Majorana
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Alice Berardo
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, 35131 Padova, Italy
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van Mourik M, Schuiringa GH, Varion-Verhagen LP, Vonk LA, van Donkelaar CC, Ito K, Foolen J. Enzymatic Isolation of Articular Chondrons: Is It Much Different Than That of Chondrocytes? Tissue Eng Part C Methods 2023; 29:30-40. [PMID: 36576016 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tec.2022.0176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
In native articular cartilage, chondrocytes (Chy) are completely capsulated by a pericellular matrix (PCM), together called the chondron (Chn). Due to its unique properties (w.r.t. territorial matrix) and importance in mechanotransduction, the PCM and Chn may be important in regenerative strategies. The current gold standard for the isolation of Chns from cartilage dates from 1997. Although previous research already showed the low cell yield and the heterogeneity of the isolated populations, their compositions and properties have never been thoroughly characterized. This study aimed to compare enzymatic isolation methods for Chy and Chns and characterizes the isolation efficiency and quality of the PCM. Bovine articular cartilage was digested according to the 5-h (5H) gold standard Chn isolation method (0.3% dispase +0.2% collagenase II), an overnight (ON) Chn isolation (0.15% dispase +0.1% collagenase II), and an ON Chy isolation (0.15% collagenase II +0.01% hyaluronidase). Type VI collagen staining, fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis, specific cell sorting, and immunohistochemistry were performed using a type VI collagen staining, to study their isolation efficiency and quality of the PCM. These analyses showed a heterogeneous mixture of Chy and Chns for all three methods. Although the 5H Chn isolation resulted in the highest percentage of Chns, the cell yield was significantly lower compared to the other isolation methods. FACS, based on the type VI collagen staining, successfully sorted the three identified cell populations. To maximize Chn yield and homogeneity, the ON Chn enzymatic digestion method should be combined with type VI collagen staining and specific cell sorting. Impact statement Since chondrocytes are highly dependent on their microenvironment for maintaining phenotypic stability, it is hypothesized that using chondrons results in superior outcomes in cartilage tissue engineering. This study reveals the constitution of cell populations obtained after enzymatic digestion of articular cartilage tissue and presents an alternative method to obtain a homogeneous population of chondrons. These data can improve the impact of studies investigating the effect of the pericellular matrix on neocartilage formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marloes van Mourik
- Orthopaedic Biomechanics and Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Gerke H Schuiringa
- Orthopaedic Biomechanics and Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Liesbeth P Varion-Verhagen
- Laboratory of Immunoengineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Lucienne A Vonk
- Department of Orthopaedics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Corrinus C van Donkelaar
- Orthopaedic Biomechanics and Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Keita Ito
- Orthopaedic Biomechanics and Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Jasper Foolen
- Orthopaedic Biomechanics and Department of Biomedical Engineering, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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Shah SS, Mithoefer K. Scientific Developments and Clinical Applications Utilizing Chondrons and Chondrocytes with Matrix for Cartilage Repair. Cartilage 2021; 13:1195S-1205S. [PMID: 33155482 PMCID: PMC8808934 DOI: 10.1177/1947603520968884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Injuries to articular cartilage of the knee are increasingly common. The operative management of these focal chondral lesions continues to be problematic for the treating orthopedic surgeon secondary to the limited regenerative capacity of articular cartilage. The pericellular matrix (PCM) is a specialized, thin layer of the extracellular matrix that immediately surrounds chondrocytes forming a unit together called the chondron. The advancements in our knowledge base with regard to the PCM/chondrons as well as interterritorial matrix has permeated and led to advancements in product development in conjunction with minced cartilage, marrow stimulation, osteochondral allograft, and autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI). This review intends to summarize recent progress in chondrocytes with matrix research, with an emphasis on the role the PCM/extracellular matrix (ECM) plays for favorable chondrogenic gene expression, as a barrier/filtration unit, and in osteoarthritis. The bulk of the review describes cutting-edge and evolving clinical developments and discuss these developments in light of underlying basic science applications. Clinical applications of chondrocytes with matrix science include Reveille Cartilage Processor, Cartiform, and ACI with Spherox (which was recently recommended for the treatment of grade III or IV articular cartilage defects over 2 cm2 by the National Institute of Health and Care Excellence [NICE] in the United Kingdom). The current article presents a comprehensive overview of both the basic science and clinical results of these next-generation cartilage repair techniques by focusing specifically on the scientific evolution in each category as it pertains with underlying chondrocytes with matrix theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarav S. Shah
- Division of Sports Medicine, Department
of Orthopaedic Surgery, New England Baptist Hospital, Boston, MA, USA,Sarav S. Shah, Division of Sports Medicine,
Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, New England Baptist Hospital, 125 Parker Hill
Avenue, Boston, MA 02120, USA.
| | - Kai Mithoefer
- Division of Sports Medicine, Department
of Orthopaedic Surgery, New England Baptist Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
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5
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Combination of chondrocytes and chondrons improves extracellular matrix production to promote the repairs of defective knee cartilage in rabbits. J Orthop Translat 2021; 28:47-54. [PMID: 33717981 PMCID: PMC7906883 DOI: 10.1016/j.jot.2021.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 12/12/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Chondrons are composed of chondrocytes and the surrounding pericellular matrix (PCM) and function to enhance chondrocyte-mediated cartilage tissue engineering. This study aimed at investigating the potential effect of combined chondrocytes with chondrons on the production of proteoglycan and collagen-II (Col-2) and the repair of defective knee cartilage in rabbits. Methods Chondrocytes and chondrons were isolated from the knee cartilage of rabbits, and cultured alone or co-cultured for varying periods in vitro. Their morphology was characterized by histology. The levels of aggrecan (AGG), Col-2 and glycosaminoglycan (GAG) expression were quantified by qRT-PCR, Alcian blue-based precipitation and ELISA. The effect of combined chondrocytes with chondrons in alginate spheres on the repair of defective knee cartilage was examined in rabbits. Results The isolated chondrocytes and chondrons displayed unique morphology and began to proliferate on day 3 and 6 post culture, respectively, accompanied by completely degenerated PCM on day 6 post culture. Evidently, chondrocytes had stronger proliferation capacity than chondrons. Longitudinal analyses indicated that culture of chondrons, but not chondrocytes, increased AGG mRNA transcripts and GAG levels with time and Col-2 mRNA transcripts only on day 3 post culture. Compared with chondrocytes or chondrons alone, co-culture of chondrocytes and chondrons significantly up-regulated AGG and Col-2 expression and GAG production, particularly at a ratio of 1:1. Implantation with chondrocytes and chondrons at 1:1 significantly promoted the repair of defective knee cartilage in rabbits, accompanied by reduced the Wakiteni scores with time. Conclusion Combined chondrons with chondrocytes promoted the production of extracellular matrix and the repair of defective knee cartilage in rabbits. The translational potential of this article This study explores that the combination of chondrons and chondrocytes may be new therapeutic strategy for cartilage tissue engineering and repair of defective cartilage.
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6
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Trachana V, Mourmoura E, Papathanasiou I, Tsezou A. Understanding the role of chondrocytes in osteoarthritis: utilizing proteomics. Expert Rev Proteomics 2019; 16:201-213. [DOI: 10.1080/14789450.2019.1571918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Varvara Trachana
- Laboratory of Biology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
| | - Evanthia Mourmoura
- Laboratory of Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
| | - Ioanna Papathanasiou
- Laboratory of Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
| | - Aspasia Tsezou
- Laboratory of Biology, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
- Laboratory of Cytogenetics and Molecular Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece
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Jacer S, Shafaei H, Soleimani Rad J. An Investigation on the Regenerative Effects of Intra Articular Injection of Co-Cultured Adipose Derived Stem Cells with Chondron for Treatment of Induced Osteoarthritis. Adv Pharm Bull 2018; 8:297-306. [PMID: 30023332 PMCID: PMC6046423 DOI: 10.15171/apb.2018.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Revised: 04/28/2018] [Accepted: 04/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: Adipose tissue derived stem cells (ASCs) and chondrocytes are best cells for articular cartilage regeneration. Chondrocyte with peri-cellular matrix (PCM) is called chondron provides ideal microenviroment than chondrocytes. We aimed to evaluate the regenerative effects of intra-articular injection of ASCs co-cultures with chondron in induced osteoarthritis (OA). Methods: ASC, from the peri-renal fat of male rat and chondron from primary newborn rat hyaline cartilage were isolated. ASCs were cultured for at least three passages in vitro. Six weeks after OA induction, rats were randomly distributed in five groups of control, osteoarthritic, ASC, chondron and co-cultured. ASCs (107), chondrons (107) and combination of chondrons and ASCs (107) were injected into intra-articular space of the rat knee. The effect of treatments was evaluated by macroscopic and microscopic examinations. The expression levels of collagen type ΙΙ was studied by immunohistochemistry. Results: Macroscopic appearance of the co-cultured group, showed much enhanced articular cartilage regeneration compared to ASC and chondron groups. H&E showed evidence of repair site of articular surface without erosion and fibrillation versus OA group which showed thin layer of hyaline cartilage over tidemark and spontaneous fibrocartilage formation. Metachromatic regions stained with toluidine blue were larger in treatment groups versus OA group. Strong intensity of type ΙΙ collagen staining was observed in co-culture group compared to other groups. Conclusion: Co-culture of chondrons and ASCs increased articular hyaline cartilage formation and provides a useful tool to improve limitations of each of applied cells in this model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sorayya Jacer
- Department of Anatomical Science, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Hajar Shafaei
- Department of Anatomical Science, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Jafar Soleimani Rad
- Department of Anatomical Science, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.,Stem Cell Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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Hoshi K, Fujihara Y, Yamawaki T, Harai M, Asawa Y, Hikita A. Biological aspects of tissue-engineered cartilage. Histochem Cell Biol 2018; 149:375-381. [PMID: 29511835 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-018-1652-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Cartilage regenerative medicine has been progressed well, and it reaches the stage of clinical application. Among various techniques, tissue engineering, which incorporates elements of materials science, is investigated earnestly, driven by high clinical needs. The cartilage tissue engineering using a poly lactide scaffold has been exploratorily used in the treatment of cleft lip-nose patients, disclosing good clinical results during 3-year observation. However, to increase the reliability of this treatment, not only accumulation of clinical evidence on safety and usefulness of the tissue-engineered products, but also establishment of scientific background on biological mechanisms, are regarded essential. In this paper, we reviewed recent trends of cartilage tissue engineering in clinical practice, summarized experimental findings on cellular and matrix changes during the cartilage regeneration, and discussed the importance of further studies on biological aspects of tissue-engineered cartilage, especially by the histological and the morphological methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuto Hoshi
- Department of Sensory and Motor System Medicine, Division of Tissue Engineering, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Hongo 7-3-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8655, Japan.
| | - Yuko Fujihara
- Department of Sensory and Motor System Medicine, Division of Tissue Engineering, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Hongo 7-3-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8655, Japan
| | - Takanori Yamawaki
- Department of Sensory and Motor System Medicine, Division of Tissue Engineering, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Hongo 7-3-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8655, Japan
| | - Motohiro Harai
- Department of Sensory and Motor System Medicine, Division of Tissue Engineering, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Hongo 7-3-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8655, Japan
| | - Yukiyo Asawa
- Department of Sensory and Motor System Medicine, Division of Tissue Engineering, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Hongo 7-3-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8655, Japan
| | - Atsuhiko Hikita
- Department of Sensory and Motor System Medicine, Division of Tissue Engineering, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Hongo 7-3-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8655, Japan
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Rothdiener M, Uynuk-Ool T, Südkamp N, Aurich M, Grodzinsky AJ, Kurz B, Rolauffs B. Human osteoarthritic chondrons outnumber patient- and joint-matched chondrocytes in hydrogel culture-Future application in autologous cell-based OA cartilage repair? J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2017; 12:e1206-e1220. [PMID: 28714570 DOI: 10.1002/term.2516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Revised: 06/09/2017] [Accepted: 07/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI) is used in 34-60% for osteoarthritic (OA) cartilage defects, although ACI is neither recommended nor designed for OA. Envisioning a hydrogel-based ACI for OA that uses chondrons instead of classically used chondrocytes, we hypothesized that human OA chondrons may outperform OA chondrocytes. We compared patient- and joint surface-matched human OA chondrons with OA chondrocytes cultured for the first time in a hydrogel, using a self-assembling peptide system. We determined yield, viability, cell numbers, mRNA expression, GAPDH mRNA enzyme activity, Collagen II synthesis (CPII) and degradation (C2C), and sulfated glycosaminoglycan. Ex vivo, mRNA expression was comparable. Over time, significant differences in survival led to 3.4-fold higher OA chondron numbers in hydrogels after 2 weeks (p = .002). Significantly, more enzymatically active GAPDH protein indicated higher metabolic activity. The number of cultures that expressed mRNA for Collagen Types I and VI, COMP, aggrecan, VEGF, TGF-β1, and FGF-2 (but not Collagen Types II and X) was different, resulting in a 3.5-fold higher number of expression-positive OA chondron cultures (p < .05). Measuring CPII and C2C per hydrogel, OA chondron hydrogels synthesized more than they degraded Collagen Type II, the opposite was true for OA chondrocytes. Per cell, OA chondrons but not OA chondrocytes displayed more synthesis than degradation. Thus, OA chondrons displayed superior biosynthesis and mRNA expression of tissue engineering and phenotype-relevant genes. Moreover, human OA chondrons displayed a significant survival advantage in hydrogel culture, whose presence, drastic extent, and timescale was novel and is clinically significant. Collectively, these data highlight the high potential of human OA chondrons for OA ACI, as they would outnumber and, thus, surpass OA chondrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Rothdiener
- Siegfried Weller Institute for Trauma Research, BG Trauma Clinic, Eberhard Karls University, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Tatiana Uynuk-Ool
- Siegfried Weller Institute for Trauma Research, BG Trauma Clinic, Eberhard Karls University, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Norbert Südkamp
- G.E.R.N. Tissue Replacement, Regeneration & Neogenesis, Department of Orthopedics and Trauma Surgery, University Medical Center Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Matthias Aurich
- Department of Orthopaedic and Trauma Surgery, Sana Kliniken Leipziger Land, Borna, Germany.,Department of Trauma, Hand and Reconstructive Surgery, Universitätsklinikum Jena, Jena, Germany.,Department of Biochemistry, Rush Medical College, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Alan J Grodzinsky
- Center for Biomedical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Bodo Kurz
- Department of Anatomy, Christian Albrechts University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Bernd Rolauffs
- G.E.R.N. Tissue Replacement, Regeneration & Neogenesis, Department of Orthopedics and Trauma Surgery, University Medical Center Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, Albert Ludwigs University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.,Center for Biomedical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
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10
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Sullivan M, Fraser EJ, Linklater J, Harris C, Morgan K. Arthroscopic Surgical Technique for an Acute Talar Dome Osteochondral Lesion in a Professional Rugby League Player. Foot Ankle Spec 2017; 10:263-269. [PMID: 27658414 DOI: 10.1177/1938640016669797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Talar osteochondral lesions represent challenging clinical entities, particularly in high-demand athletes. Surgical treatment of large lesions often requires a 2-step procedure, or the use of osteotomy in the case of autologous osteochondral transfer, which can delay return to sport. METHODS A professional rugby league player underwent surgery for a complex injury to the ankle. A talar osteochondral lesion with a maximal diameter of 15 mm was treated in an arthroscopic fashion using the cartilage taken from the completely displaced osteochondral fragment. Cartilage was cut into chips and combined with bone graft product containing platelet-derived growth factor and a porous collagen scaffold. Autologous cartilage was then reimplanted arthroscopically. The patient was allowed full ankle motion from 2 weeks postoperatively, and weightbearing was commenced at 6 weeks. Follow-up imaging and functional outcomes, including return to sport, were assessed at regular intervals. RESULTS The patient was able to return to professional rugby league by 23 weeks postoperatively. Magnetic resonance imaging at 16 months postoperatively showed restoration of the subchondral plate and osseous infill. At final follow-up, the patient remained pain free and was playing at preinjury level. CONCLUSION This report describes good outcomes using a novel, 1-step cartilage repair technique to treat a large talar osteochondral lesion in a professional athlete. LEVELS OF EVIDENCE Level V: Expert opinion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Sullivan
- St Vincent's Clinic, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (MS, EJF).,Castlereagh Imaging, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia (JL).,Norwest Imaging, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia (CH).,Penrith Panthers National Rugby League Club, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (KM)
| | - Ethan J Fraser
- St Vincent's Clinic, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (MS, EJF).,Castlereagh Imaging, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia (JL).,Norwest Imaging, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia (CH).,Penrith Panthers National Rugby League Club, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (KM)
| | - James Linklater
- St Vincent's Clinic, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (MS, EJF).,Castlereagh Imaging, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia (JL).,Norwest Imaging, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia (CH).,Penrith Panthers National Rugby League Club, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (KM)
| | - Craig Harris
- St Vincent's Clinic, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (MS, EJF).,Castlereagh Imaging, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia (JL).,Norwest Imaging, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia (CH).,Penrith Panthers National Rugby League Club, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (KM)
| | - Kieran Morgan
- St Vincent's Clinic, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (MS, EJF).,Castlereagh Imaging, Westmead, New South Wales, Australia (JL).,Norwest Imaging, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia (CH).,Penrith Panthers National Rugby League Club, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia (KM)
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11
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Zhang Z. Chondrons and the pericellular matrix of chondrocytes. TISSUE ENGINEERING PART B-REVIEWS 2014; 21:267-77. [PMID: 25366980 DOI: 10.1089/ten.teb.2014.0286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
In cartilage, chondrocytes are embedded within an abundant extracellular matrix (ECM). A typical chondron consists of a chondrocyte and the immediate surrounding pericellular matrix (PCM). The PCM has a patent structure, defined molecular composition, and unique physical properties that support the chondrocyte. Given this spatial position, the PCM is pivotal in mediating communication between chondrocytes and the ECM and, thus, plays a critical role in cartilage homeostasis. The biological function and mechanical properties of the PCM have been extensively studied, mostly in the form of chondrons. This review intends to summarize recent progress in chondron and chondrocyte PCM research, with emphasis on the re-establishment of the PCM by isolated chondrocytes or mesenchymal stem cells during chondrogenic differentiation, and the effects of the PCM on cartilage tissue formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zijun Zhang
- Orthobiologic Laboratory, MedStar Union Memorial Hospital, Baltimore, Maryland
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12
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Vonk LA, de Windt TS, Kragten AHM, Beekhuizen M, Mastbergen SC, Dhert WJA, Lafeber FPJG, Creemers LB, Saris DBF. Enhanced cell-induced articular cartilage regeneration by chondrons; the influence of joint damage and harvest site. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2014; 22:1910-7. [PMID: 25151084 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2014.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2014] [Revised: 06/30/2014] [Accepted: 08/13/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Interactions between chondrocytes and their native pericellular matrix provide optimal circumstances for regeneration of cartilage. However, cartilage diseases such as osteoarthritis change the pericellular matrix, causing doubt to them as a cell source for autologous cell therapy. METHODS Chondrons and chondrocytes were isolated from stifle joints of goats in which cartilage damage was surgically induced in the right knee. After 4 weeks of regeneration culture, DNA content and proteoglycan and collagen content and release were determined. RESULTS The cartilage regenerated by chondrons isolated from the damaged joint contained less proteoglycans and collagen compared to chondrons from the same harvest site in the nonoperated knee (P < 0.01). Besides, chondrons still reflected whether they were isolated from a damaged joint, even if they where isolated from the opposing or adjacent condyle. Although chondrocytes did not reflect this diseased status of the joint, chondrons always outperformed chondrocytes, even when isolated from the damaged joints (P < 0.0001). Besides increased cartilage production, the chondrons showed less collagenase activity compared to the chondrocytes. CONCLUSION Chondrons still outperform chondrocytes when they were isolated from a damaged joint and they might be a superior cell source for articular cartilage repair and cell-induced cartilage formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- L A Vonk
- Department of Orthopaedics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - T S de Windt
- Department of Orthopaedics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - A H M Kragten
- Department of Orthopaedics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - M Beekhuizen
- Department of Orthopaedics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - S C Mastbergen
- Department of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - W J A Dhert
- Department of Orthopaedics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - F P J G Lafeber
- Department of Rheumatology & Clinical Immunology, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - L B Creemers
- Department of Orthopaedics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - D B F Saris
- Department of Orthopaedics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands; Tissue Regeneration, MIRA Institute, University Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
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13
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Yin Z, Schmid TM, Yasar TK, Liu Y, Royston TJ, Magin RL. Mechanical characterization of tissue-engineered cartilage using microscopic magnetic resonance elastography. Tissue Eng Part C Methods 2014; 20:611-9. [PMID: 24266395 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tec.2013.0408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Knowledge of mechanical properties of tissue-engineered cartilage is essential for the optimization of cartilage tissue engineering strategies. Microscopic magnetic resonance elastography (μMRE) is a recently developed MR-based technique that can nondestructively visualize shear wave motion. From the observed wave pattern in MR phase images the tissue mechanical properties (e.g., shear modulus or stiffness) can be extracted. For quantification of the dynamic shear properties of small and stiff tissue-engineered cartilage, μMRE needs to be performed at frequencies in the kilohertz range. However, at frequencies greater than 1 kHz shear waves are rapidly attenuated in soft tissues. In this study μMRE, with geometric focusing, was used to overcome the rapid wave attenuation at high frequencies, enabling the measurement of the shear modulus of tissue-engineered cartilage. This methodology was first tested at a frequency of 5 kHz using a model system composed of alginate beads embedded in agarose, and then applied to evaluate extracellular matrix development in a chondrocyte pellet over a 3-week culture period. The shear stiffness in the pellet was found to increase over time (from 6.4 to 16.4 kPa), and the increase was correlated with both the proteoglycan content and the collagen content of the chondrocyte pellets (R(2)=0.776 and 0.724, respectively). Our study demonstrates that μMRE when performed with geometric focusing can be used to calculate and map the shear properties within tissue-engineered cartilage during its development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziying Yin
- 1 Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago , Chicago, Illinois
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14
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Bekkers JEJ, Tsuchida AI, van Rijen MHP, Vonk LA, Dhert WJA, Creemers LB, Saris DBF. Single-stage cell-based cartilage regeneration using a combination of chondrons and mesenchymal stromal cells: comparison with microfracture. Am J Sports Med 2013; 41:2158-66. [PMID: 23831891 DOI: 10.1177/0363546513494181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autologous chondrocyte implantation (ACI) is traditionally a 2-step procedure used to repair focal articular cartilage lesions. With use of a combination of chondrons (chondrocytes in their own territorial matrix) and mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs), ACI could be innovated and performed in a single step, as sufficient cells would be available to fill the defect within a 1-step surgical procedure. Chondrons have been shown to have higher regenerative capacities than chondrocytes without such a pericellular matrix. PURPOSE To evaluate cartilage formation by a combination of chondrons and MSCs in vitro and in both small and large animal models. STUDY DESIGN Controlled laboratory study. METHODS Chondrons and MSCs were cultured at different ratios in vitro containing 0%, 5%, 10%, 20%, 50%, or 100% chondrons (n = 3); embedded in injectable fibrin glue (Beriplast); and implanted subcutaneously in nude mice (n = 10; ratios of 0%, 5%, 10%, and 20% chondrons). Also, in a 1-step procedure, a combination of chondrons and MSCs was implanted in a freshly created focal articular cartilage lesion (10% chondrons) in goats (n = 8) and compared with microfracture. The effect of both treatments, after 6-month follow-up, was evaluated using biochemical glycosaminoglycan (GAG) and GAG/DNA analysis and scored using validated scoring systems for macroscopic and microscopic defect repairs. RESULTS The addition of MSCs to chondron cultures enhanced cartilage-specific matrix production as reflected by a higher GAG production (P < .03), both in absolute levels and normalized to DNA content, compared with chondrocyte and 100% chondron cultures. Similar results were observed after 4 weeks of subcutaneous implantation in nude mice. Treatment of freshly created cartilage defects in goats using a combination of chondrons and MSCs in Beriplast resulted in better microscopic, macroscopic, and biochemical cartilage regeneration (P ≤ .02) compared with microfracture treatment. CONCLUSION The combination of chondrons and MSCs increased cartilage matrix formation, and this combination of cells was safely applied in a goat model for focal cartilage lesions, outperforming microfracture. CLINICAL RELEVANCE This study describes the bench-to-preclinical development of a new cell-based regenerative treatment for focal articular cartilage defects that outperforms microfracture in goats. In addition, it is a single-step procedure, thereby making the expensive cell expansion and reimplantation of dedifferentiated cells, as in ACI, redundant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joris E J Bekkers
- Department of Orthopaedics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, the Netherlands
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15
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Hoenig E, Leicht U, Winkler T, Mielke G, Beck K, Peters F, Schilling AF, Morlock MM. Mechanical properties of native and tissue-engineered cartilage depend on carrier permeability: a bioreactor study. Tissue Eng Part A 2013; 19:1534-42. [PMID: 23387321 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2012.0538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The implantation of osteochondral constructs-tissue-engineered (TE) cartilage on a bone substitute carrier-is a promising method to treat defects in articular cartilage. Currently, however, the TE cartilage's mechanical properties are clearly inferior to those of native cartilage. Their improvement has been the subject of various studies, mainly focusing on growth factors and physical loading during cultivation. With the approach of osteochondral constructs another aspect arises: the permeability of the carrier materials. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether and how the permeability of the subchondral bone influences the properties of native cartilage and whether the bone substitute carrier's permeability influences the TE cartilage of osteochondral constructs accordingly. Consequently, the influence of the subchondral bone's permeability on native cartilage was determined: Native porcine cartilage-bone cylinders were cultivated for 2 weeks in a bioreactor under mechanical loading with and without restricted permeability of the bone. For the TE cartilage these two permeability conditions were investigated using permeable and impermeable tricalciumphosphate carriers under equivalent cultivation conditions. All specimens were evaluated mechanically, biochemically, and histologically. The restriction of the bone's permeability significantly decreased the Young's modulus of native cartilage in vitro. No biochemical differences were found. This finding was confirmed for TE cartilage: While the biochemical parameters were not affected, a permeable carrier improved the cell morphology and mechanical properties in comparison to an impermeable one. In conclusion, the carrier permeability was identified as a determining factor for the mechanical properties of TE cartilage of osteochondral constructs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Hoenig
- Biomechanics Section, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany.
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16
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Hoshi K, Fujihara Y, Asawa Y, Nishizawa S, Kanazawa S, Sakamoto T, Watanabe M, Ogasawara T, Saijo H, Mori Y, Takato T. Recent trends in cartilage regenerative medicine and its application to oral and maxillofacial surgery. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/s1348-8643(12)00049-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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17
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Unterman SA, Gibson M, Lee JH, Crist J, Chansakul T, Yang EC, Elisseeff JH. Hyaluronic acid-binding scaffold for articular cartilage repair. Tissue Eng Part A 2012; 18:2497-506. [PMID: 22724901 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2011.0711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Hyaluronic acid (HA) is an extracellular matrix molecule with multiple physical and biological functions found in many tissues, including cartilage. HA has been incorporated in a number of biomaterial and scaffold systems. However, HA in the material may be difficult to control if it is not chemically modified and chemical modification of HA may negatively impact biological function. In this study, we developed a poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogel with noncovalent HA-binding capabilities and evaluated its ability to support cartilage formation in vitro and in an articular defect model. Chondrogenic differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells encapsulated in the HA-interactive scaffolds containing various amounts of exogenous HA was evaluated. The HA-binding hydrogel without exogenous HA produced the best cartilage as determined by biochemical content (glysocaminoglycan and collagen), histology (Safranin O and type II collagen staining), and gene expression analysis for aggrecan, type I collagen, type II collagen, and sox-9. This HA-binding formulation was then translated to an osteochondral defect model in the rat knee. After 6 weeks, histological analysis demonstrated improved cartilage tissue production in defects treated with the HA-interactive hydrogel compared to noninteractive control scaffolds and untreated defects. In addition to the tissue repair in the defect space, the Safranin O staining in cartilage tissue surrounding the defect was greater in treatment groups where the HA-binding scaffold was applied. In sum, incorporation of a noncovalent HA-binding functionality into biomaterials provides an ability to interact with local or exogenous HA, which can then impact tissue remodeling and ultimately new tissue production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shimon A Unterman
- Translational Tissue Engineering Center, Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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18
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Hübner S, Efthymiadis A. Recent progress in histochemistry and cell biology. Histochem Cell Biol 2012; 137:403-57. [PMID: 22366957 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-012-0933-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Studies published in Histochemistry and Cell Biology in the year 2011 represent once more a manifest of established and newly sophisticated techniques being exploited to put tissue- and cell type-specific molecules into a functional context. The review is therefore the Histochemistry and Cell Biology's yearly intention to provide interested readers appropriate summaries of investigations touching the areas of tissue biology, developmental biology, the biology of the immune system, stem cell research, the biology of subcellular compartments, in order to put the message of such studies into natural scientific-/human- and also pathological-relevant correlations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Hübner
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany.
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19
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Zhang Z, Jin W, Beckett J, Otto T, Moed B. A proteomic approach for identification and localization of the pericellular components of chondrocytes. Histochem Cell Biol 2011; 136:153-62. [PMID: 21698479 DOI: 10.1007/s00418-011-0834-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Although the pericellular matrix (PCM) plays a central role in the communication between chondrocytes and extracellular matrix, its composition is largely unknown. In this study, the PCM was investigated with a proteomic approach using chondrons, which are enzymatically isolated constructs including the chondrocyte and its surrounding PCM. Chondrons and chondrocytes alone were isolated from human articular cartilage. Proteins extracted from chondrons and chondrocytes were used for two-dimensional electrophoresis. Protein spots were quantitatively compared between chondron and chondrocyte gels. Cellular proteins, which had similar density between chondron and chondrocyte gels, did not proceed for analysis. Since chondrons only differ from chondrocytes in association of the PCM, protein spots in the chondron gels that had higher quantity than that in the chondrocyte gels were selected as candidates of the PCM components and processed for mass spectrometry. Among 15 identified peptides, several were fragments of the three type VI collagen chains (α-1, α-2, and α-3). Other identified PCM proteins included triosephosphate isomerase, transforming growth factor-β induced protein, peroxiredoxin-4, ADAM (A disintegrin and metalloproteinases) 28, and latent-transforming growth factor beta-binding protein-2. These PCM components were verified with immunohisto(cyto)chemistry for localization in the PCM region of articular cartilage. The abundance of type VI collagen in the PCM emphasizes its importance to the microenvironment of chondrocytes. Several proteins were localized in the PCM of chondrocytes for the first time and that warrants further investigation for their functions in cartilage biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zijun Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Saint Louis University, School of Medicine, 3635 Vista Avenue, Desloge Towers, DT-7, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA.
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20
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Peters HC, Otto TJ, Enders JT, Jin W, Moed BR, Zhang Z. The protective role of the pericellular matrix in chondrocyte apoptosis. Tissue Eng Part A 2011; 17:2017-24. [PMID: 21457093 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2010.0601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION This study was designed to quantify the role of the pericellular matrix (PCM) in chondrocyte apoptosis using chondrons, which are a cartilage functional unit including a chondrocyte and its associated PCM. METHODS Chondrocytes and chondrons were enzymatically isolated from human articular cartilage and exposed to monosodium iodoacetate (MIA) and staurosporine for apoptosis induction. Chondrons were defined by the presence of type VI collagen, a basic component of the PCM. Apoptosis of chondrocytes and chondrons was measured with annexin V binding by flow cytometry and verified with terminal dUTP nick end-labeling staining. In a separate experiment, isolated chondrocytes were treated with soluble type VI collagen, before or after apoptosis induction with MIA, and cell death was measured by the activity of LDH and terminal dUTP nick end-labeling staining. RESULTS Chondrocytes treated with MIA incurred 27% cell death, compared with 12% in chondrons. On treating with MIA, 9% of chondrocytes underwent apoptosis, compared with only 1.6% of chondrons. Similarly, staurosporine induced 13% apoptosis in chondrocytes, whereas it was 3% in chondrons. Preincubation of type VI collagen effectively prevented chondrocytes from MIA-induced cell death. After apoptosis was induced with MIA, however, treatment with type VI collagen failed to rescue chondrocytes from death. CONCLUSION The PCM, a native microenvironment of chondrocytes, protects chondrocytes from apoptosis. Type VI collagen is a functional component of the PCM that contributes to the survival of chondrocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Charlie Peters
- Center for Anatomical Science and Education, Saint Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, USA
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21
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Park SH, Choi BH, Park SR, Min BH. Chondrogenesis of Rabbit Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Fibrin/Hyaluronan Composite ScaffoldIn Vitro. Tissue Eng Part A 2011; 17:1277-86. [DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2010.0337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Sang-Hyug Park
- Cell Therapy Center, Ajou University Medical Center, Suwon, Korea
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University Medical Center, Suwon, Korea
| | - Byung Hyune Choi
- Division of Biomedical and Bioengineering Sciences, Inha University College of Medicine, Incheon, Korea
| | - So Ra Park
- Department of Physiology, Inha University College of Medicine, Incheon, Korea
| | - Byoung-Hyun Min
- Cell Therapy Center, Ajou University Medical Center, Suwon, Korea
- Department of Molecular Science and Technology, Ajou University Medical Center, Suwon, Korea
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, School of Medicine, Ajou University, Suwon, Korea
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22
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Hoenig E, Winkler T, Mielke G, Paetzold H, Schuettler D, Goepfert C, Machens HG, Morlock MM, Schilling AF. High amplitude direct compressive strain enhances mechanical properties of scaffold-free tissue-engineered cartilage. Tissue Eng Part A 2011; 17:1401-11. [PMID: 21247246 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2010.0395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Adult cartilage has a limited healing capacity. Damages resulting from disease or injury increase over time and cause severe pain. One approach to reinstate the cartilage function is tissue engineering (TE). However, the generation of TE cartilage is time consuming and expensive and its properties are so far suboptimal. As in vivo cartilage is subject to loading, it is assumed that mechanical stimulation may enhance the quality of TE cartilage. In this study the short-term influence of variable compressive strain amplitudes on mechanical and biochemical properties of scaffold-free TE cartilage was investigated. Primary porcine chondrocytes were isolated, proliferated, redifferentiated, and transferred onto hydroxyapatite carriers, resulting in scaffold-free cartilage-carrier constructs. These constructs were placed in a custom-made bioreactor. Compression amplitudes of 5%, 10%, and 20% were applied. In each experiment four constructs were loaded with dynamic compression (3000 cycles/day, 1 Hz) for 14 days and four constructs served as unloaded control. The cartilage was evaluated biochemically, histological, and mechanically. No difference in glycosaminoglycan or collagen content between the loaded and the control groups was found. However, a positive correlation between compression amplitude and normalized Young's modulus was detected (R(2)=0.59, p<0.001). The highest compression amplitude of 20% had the strongest positive effect on the mechanical properties of the TE cartilage (Young's modulus increase of 241±28% compared to unloaded control). The data presented suggest that preconditioning with higher load amplitudes might be an attractive way of generating stiffer tissue and may help accelerating the cultivation of mechanically competent TE cartilage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Hoenig
- Biomechanics Section, Hamburg University of Technology, Hamburg, Germany
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23
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Lotz MK, Otsuki S, Grogan SP, Sah R, Terkeltaub R, D'Lima D. Cartilage cell clusters. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 62:2206-18. [PMID: 20506158 DOI: 10.1002/art.27528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Martin K Lotz
- Department of Molecular and Experimental Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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Vonk LA, Doulabi BZ, Huang C, Helder MN, Everts V, Bank RA. Preservation of the chondrocyte's pericellular matrix improves cell-induced cartilage formation. J Cell Biochem 2010; 110:260-71. [PMID: 20213765 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.22533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The extracellular matrix surrounding chondrocytes within a chondron is likely to affect the metabolic activity of these cells. In this study we investigated this by analyzing protein synthesis by intact chondrons obtained from different types of cartilage and compared this with chondrocytes. Chondrons and chondrocytes from goats from different cartilage sources (articular cartilage, nucleus pulposus, and annulus fibrosus) were cultured for 0, 7, 18, and 25 days in alginate beads. Real-time polymerase chain reaction analyses indicated that the gene expression of Col2a1 was consistently higher by the chondrons compared with the chondrocytes and the Col1a1 gene expression was consistently lower. Western blotting revealed that Type II collagen extracted from the chondrons was cross-linked. No Type I collagen could be extracted. The amount of proteoglycans was higher for the chondrons from articular cartilage and nucleus pulposus compared with the chondrocytes, but no differences were found between chondrons and chondrocytes from annulus fibrosus. The expression of both Mmp2 and Mmp9 was higher by the chondrocytes from articular cartilage and nucleus pulposus compared with the chondrons, whereas no differences were found with the annulus fibrosus cells. Gene expression of Mmp13 increased strongly by the chondrocytes (>50-fold), but not by the chondrons. Taken together, our data suggest that preserving the pericellular matrix has a positive effect on cell-induced cartilage production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucienne A Vonk
- Department of Oral Cell Biology, Academic Centre for Dentistry Amsterdam (ACTA), University of Amsterdam and VU University Amsterdam, Research Institute MOVE, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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25
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Taylor DW, Ahmed N, Gan L, Gross AE, Kandel RA. Proteoglycan and Collagen Accumulation by Passaged Chondrocytes Can Be Enhanced Through Side-by-Side Culture with Primary Chondrocytes. Tissue Eng Part A 2010; 16:643-51. [DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2009.0236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Drew W. Taylor
- CIHR-BioEngineering of Skeletal Tissues Team, Mount Sinai Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Canada
| | - Nazish Ahmed
- CIHR-BioEngineering of Skeletal Tissues Team, Mount Sinai Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Lu Gan
- CIHR-BioEngineering of Skeletal Tissues Team, Mount Sinai Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Allan E. Gross
- CIHR-BioEngineering of Skeletal Tissues Team, Mount Sinai Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Canada
| | - Rita A. Kandel
- CIHR-BioEngineering of Skeletal Tissues Team, Mount Sinai Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
- Institute of Biomaterials and Biomedical Engineering, University of Toronto, Canada
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26
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Hsieh-Bonassera ND, Wu I, Lin JK, Schumacher BL, Chen AC, Masuda K, Bugbee WD, Sah RL. Expansion and redifferentiation of chondrocytes from osteoarthritic cartilage: cells for human cartilage tissue engineering. Tissue Eng Part A 2010; 15:3513-23. [PMID: 19456239 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2008.0628] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine if selected culture conditions enhance the expansion and redifferentiation of chondrocytes isolated from human osteoarthritic cartilage with yields appropriate for creation of constructs for treatment of joint-scale cartilage defects, damage, or osteoarthritis. METHODS Chondrocytes isolated from osteoarthritic cartilage were analyzed to determine the effects of medium supplement on cell expansion in monolayer and then cell redifferentiation in alginate beads. Expansion was assessed as cell number estimated from DNA, growth rate, and day of maximal growth. Redifferentiation was evaluated quantitatively from proteoglycan and collagen type II content, and qualitatively by histology and immunohistochemistry. RESULTS Using either serum or a growth factor cocktail (TFP: transforming growth factor beta1, fibroblast growth factor 2, and platelet-derived growth factor type bb), cell growth rate in monolayer was increased to 5.5x that of corresponding conditions without TFP, and cell number increased 100-fold within 17 days. In subsequent alginate bead culture with human serum or transforming growth factor beta1 and insulin-transferrin-selenium-linoleic acid-bovine serum albumin, redifferentiation was enhanced with increased proteoglycan and collagen type II production. Effects of human serum were dose dependent, and 5% or higher induced formation of chondron-like structures with abundant proteoglycan-rich matrix. CONCLUSION Chondrocytes from osteoarthritic cartilage can be stimulated to undergo 100-fold expansion and then redifferentiation, suggesting that they may be useful as a cell source for joint-scale cartilage tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nancy D Hsieh-Bonassera
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0412, USA
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27
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Molecular profiling of single cells in response to mechanical force: comparison of chondrocytes, chondrons and encapsulated chondrocytes. Biomaterials 2009; 31:1619-25. [PMID: 19954841 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2009.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2009] [Accepted: 11/13/2009] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
A chondrocyte and its surrounding pericellular matrix (PCM) are defined as a chondron. The PCM plays a critical role in enhancing matrix production, protecting the chondrocyte during loading and transducing mechanical signals. Tissue engineering involves the design of artificial matrices which aim to mimic PCM function for mechanical strength and signalling motifs. We compare the mechanical performance and mechanoresponsiveness of chondrocytes with and without PCM, and encapsulated by alternate adsorption of two oppositely charged polyelectrolytes; chitosan and hyaluronan. Zeta potential measurements confirmed the success of the encapsulation. Encapsulation did not influence chondrocyte viability or metabolic activity. Cells were compressed by micromanipulation with final deformations to 30%, 50% and 70%. Force-displacement data showed that the larger the deformation at the end of compression, the greater the force on the cell. Mechanoresponsiveness of cells was studied by combining single cell PCR with dynamic compression at 20% and 40%. Aggrecan and Type II collagen gene expression were significantly increased in encapsulated chondrocytes and chondrons compared to chondrocytes whereas dynamic compression had no effect on SOX9 or lubricin gene expression. Our results demonstrate that although encapsulation can mimic responses of chondrocytes to biomechanical compression the molecular profile did not reach the enhanced levels observed with chondrons.
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Abstract
Articular cartilage repair and regeneration continue to be largely intractable because of the poor regenerative properties of this tissue. The field of articular cartilage tissue engineering, which aims to repair, regenerate, and/or improve injured or diseased articular cartilage functionality, has evoked intense interest and holds great potential for improving articular cartilage therapy. This review provides an overall description of the current state of and progress in articular cartilage repair and regeneration. Traditional therapies and related problems are introduced. More importantly, a variety of promising cell sources, biocompatible tissue engineered scaffolds, scaffoldless techniques, growth factors, and mechanical stimuli used in current articular cartilage tissue engineering are reviewed. Finally, the technical and regulatory challenges of articular cartilage tissue engineering and possible future directions are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lijie Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Jerry Hu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Kyriacos A. Athanasiou
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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Connelly JT, Wilson CG, Levenston ME. Characterization of proteoglycan production and processing by chondrocytes and BMSCs in tissue engineered constructs. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2008; 16:1092-100. [PMID: 18294870 PMCID: PMC2605680 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2008.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2007] [Accepted: 01/06/2008] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The goal of this study was to characterize the proteoglycan (PG) production and processing by bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) within a tissue engineered construct. METHODS Bovine BMSCs and articular chondrocytes (ACs) were isolated from an immature calf, seeded into agarose gels, and cultured up to 32 days in the presence of TGF-beta1. The localization of various PGs was examined by immunofluorescence and histological staining. The role of proteolytic enzymes in construct development was further investigated by examining the effects of aggrecanase and MMP inhibitors on PG accumulation, aggrecan processing, and construct mechanics. RESULTS BMSCs developed a matrix rich in sulfated-glycosaminoglycans (sGAG) and full-length aggrecan, but had low levels of versican. The BMSC constructs had less collagen II and aggrecan compared to the AC constructs cultured under identical conditions. AC constructs also had high levels of pericellular collagen VI, while BMSCs had a pericellular matrix containing little collagen VI and greater levels of decorin, biglycan, and fibronectin. Treatment with the aggrecanase inhibitor did not affect sGAG accumulation or the dynamic moduli of the BMSC constructs. The MMP inhibitor slightly but significantly inhibited sGAG accumulation and lowered the dynamic moduli of BMSC constructs. CONCLUSIONS The results of this preliminary study indicate that long-term culture of BMSCs with TGF-beta1 promotes the development of an aggrecan-rich matrix characteristic of native articular cartilage; however, BMSCs accumulate significantly lower levels of sGAG and assemble distinct pericellular microenvironments compared to ACs. PG turnover does not appear to play a major role in the development of tissue engineered cartilage constructs by BMSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- John T. Connelly
- George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332
| | - Christopher G. Wilson
- Wallace H. Coulter Department of Biomedical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332
| | - Marc E. Levenston
- George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332,Department of Mechanical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305,Corresponding author: Marc E. Levenston, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Biomechanical Engineering, 233 Durand Building, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-4038, 650.723.9464 (P),
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31
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Cottam E, Hukins DWL, Lee K, Hewitt C, Jenkins MJ. Effect of sterilisation by gamma irradiation on the ability of polycaprolactone (PCL) to act as a scaffold material. Med Eng Phys 2008; 31:221-6. [PMID: 18760952 DOI: 10.1016/j.medengphy.2008.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2007] [Revised: 06/04/2008] [Accepted: 07/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This paper investigates the effect of sterilisation by gamma irradiation (dose 2.5Mrad) on the following properties of polycaprolactone (PCL): (1) degradation rate (catalysed by lipase), (2) mechanical properties, (3) the ability of cells to attach and subsequently grow on its surface. Gel permeation chromatography (GPC) was used to determine the effects of gamma irradiation of weight average (M(w)) and number average (M(n)) molecular weights. Gamma irradiation significantly decreased the rate of degradation, although the rates depended on the initial mass of polymer; it also affected the appearance of the degraded specimens when they were examined by scanning electron microscopy. Irradiation also significantly increased the mechanical yield stress but not the failure stress of PCL. It caused a significant increase in M(w) and decrease in M(n) that could be attributed to chain scission and cross-linking. Chondrocyte attachment and growth on PCL was not significantly affected by gamma irradiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Cottam
- Metallurgy & Materials Science, School of Engineering, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK.
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32
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Wang QG, El Haj AJ, Kuiper NJ. Glycosaminoglycans in the pericellular matrix of chondrons and chondrocytes. J Anat 2008; 213:266-73. [PMID: 18631286 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2008.00942.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
This is the first study to quantitate and profile the glycosaminoglycan (GAG) composition of the pericellular matrix (PCM) of chondrons and chondrocytes using the highly sensitive technique; fluorophore-assisted carbohydrate electrophoresis (FACE). Bovine articular chondrocytes and chondrons were isolated enzymatically. High cell yield and viability were obtained for both preparations. Chondrons had strong immunofluorescent labeling for keratan sulphate and chondroitin-6 sulphate but no labeling for hyaluronan. We compared the immunofluorescent data with FACE. The quantities of total keratan sulphate were determined to be 0.013 +/- 0.002 pg cell(-1) and 0.032 +/- 0.003 pg cell(-1) in the chondrocyte and chondron preparations, respectively. Four internal keratan sulphate sugars were detected (gal beta 1,4glcNAc6S, gal6S beta 1,4glcNAc6S, glcNAc beta 1,3gal and glcNAc6S beta 1,3gal) for both preparations but they were present at significantly higher concentrations in chondron preparations (P < 0.01). Total chondroitin sulphate (CS) was determined to be 0.054 +/- 0.004 pg cell(-1) and 0.077 +/- 0.005 pg cell(-1) for chondrocyte and chondron preparations, respectively. Unsulphated CS disaccharide levels were similar but chondrons had significantly more chondroitin-4 sulphated disaccharides and chondroitin-6 sulphated disaccharides (P < 0.05). Hyaluronan acid was present at low concentrations (0.010 +/- 0.001 pg cell(-1)) in both chondrocytes and chondrons. In this study, enzyme digestion coupled with FACE separation revealed new information about the differences in GAGs from isolated chondrocyte and chondron preparations. Further investigation of the differences in GAGs from chondrocytes and chondrons from different zones of articular cartilage may be useful for tissue engineering approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Guang Wang
- Institute for Science & Technology in Medicine, University of Keele, Huxley Building, Staffordshire, ST5 5BG, UK
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33
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Nicodemus GD, Bryant SJ. The role of hydrogel structure and dynamic loading on chondrocyte gene expression and matrix formation. J Biomech 2008; 41:1528-36. [PMID: 18417139 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2008.02.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2007] [Revised: 02/05/2008] [Accepted: 02/06/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Crosslinked poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) hydrogels are attractive scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering because of their ability to mimic the aqueous environment and mechanical properties of native cartilage. In this study, hydrogel crosslinking density was varied to study the influence of gel structure and the application of dynamic loading (continuous, 1 Hz, 15% amplitude strain) on chondrocyte gene expression over approximately 1 week culture. Gene expression was quantified using real-time RT-PCR for collagen II and aggrecan, the major cartilage extracellular matrix (ECM) components, and collagen I, an indicator of chondrocyte de-differentiation. When chondrocytes were encapsulated in PEG gels with low or high crosslinking, a high collagen II expression compared to collagen I expression (1000 or 100,000:1, respectively) indicated the native chondrocyte phenotype was retained. In the absence of loading, relative gene expression for collagen II and aggrecan was significantly higher (e.g., 2-fold and 4-fold, respectively, day 7) in the low crosslinked gels compared to gels with higher crosslinking. Dynamic loading, however, showed little effect on ECM gene expression in both crosslinked systems. To better understand the cellular environment, ECM production was qualitatively assessed using an in situ immunofluorescent technique and standard histology. A pericellular matrix (PCM) was observed as early as day 3 post-encapsulation and the degree of formation was dependent on gel crosslinking. These results suggest the PCM may protect the cells from sensing the applied loads. This study demonstrates that gel structure has a profound effect on chondrocyte gene expression, while dynamic loading has much less of an effect at early culture times.
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Affiliation(s)
- G D Nicodemus
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Building ECCH, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
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34
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Gruber HE, Ingram JA, Hanley EN. Morphologic complexity of the pericellular matrix in the annulus of the human intervertebral disc. Biotech Histochem 2008; 82:217-25. [PMID: 18074268 DOI: 10.1080/10520290701713999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The pericellular region of the extracellular matrix (ECM) contains collagens, proteoglycans and other noncollagenous matrix proteins. Although such specialized pericellular ECM has been well studied in articular cartilage, little is known about the pericellular matrix in the disc. In the study reported here, pericellular matrix was studied in annulus tissue from 52 subjects ranging in age from 17-74 years. In aging/degenerating intervertebral discs, cells were identified that formed a distinctive cocoon of encircling pericellular ECM. Immunohistochemical studies identified types I, II, III and VI collagen in these pericellular sites with diverse morphological features. Similar types of changes in the pericellular matrix were observed in both surgical specimens and control donor discs. Results indicate the need for future studies to address why such specialized matrix regions form around certain disc cells and to determine the consequences of these unusual matrix regions on annular lamellar organization and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- H E Gruber
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Carolinas Medical Center, Charlotte, North Carolina 28232, USA.
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35
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Murdoch AD, Grady LM, Ablett MP, Katopodi T, Meadows RS, Hardingham TE. Chondrogenic Differentiation of Human Bone Marrow Stem Cells in Transwell Cultures: Generation of Scaffold-Free Cartilage. Stem Cells 2007; 25:2786-96. [PMID: 17656642 DOI: 10.1634/stemcells.2007-0374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Human bone marrow stem cells (hMSCs) have been shown to differentiate in vitro into a number of cell lineages and are a potential autologous cell source for the repair and replacement of damaged and diseased musculoskeletal tissues. hMSC differentiation into chondrocytes has been described in high-density cell pellets cultured with specific growth and differentiation factors. We now describe how culture of hMSCs as a shallow multicellular layer on a permeable membrane over 2-4 weeks resulted in a much more efficient formation of cartilaginous tissue than in established chondrogenic assays. In this format, the hMSCs differentiated in 14 days to produce translucent, flexible discs, 6 mm in diameter by 0.8-1 mm in thickness from 0.5 x 10(6) cells. The discs contained an extensive cartilage-like extracellular matrix (ECM), with more than 50% greater proteoglycan content per cell than control hMSCs differentiated in standard cell pellet cultures. The disc constructs were also enriched in the cartilage-specific collagen II, and this was more homogeneously distributed than in cell pellet cultures. The expression of cartilage matrix genes for collagen type II and aggrecan was enhanced in disc cultures, but improved matrix production was not accompanied by increased expression of the transcription factors SOX9, L-SOX5, and SOX6. The fast continuous growth of cartilage ECM in these cultures up to 4 weeks appeared to result from the geometry of the construct and the efficient delivery of nutrients to the cells. Scaffold-free growth of cartilage in this format will provide a valuable experimental system for both experimental and potential clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan D Murdoch
- UK Centre for Tissue Engineering and Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research, University of Manchester, Faculty of Life Sciences, Michael Smith Building, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PT, UK
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36
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Dimicco MA, Kisiday JD, Gong H, Grodzinsky AJ. Structure of pericellular matrix around agarose-embedded chondrocytes. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2007; 15:1207-16. [PMID: 17524677 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2007.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2006] [Accepted: 03/29/2007] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Determine whether the structure of the type VI collagen component of the chondrocyte pericellular matrix (PCM) generated by agarose-embedded chondrocytes in culture is similar to that found in native articular cartilage. METHODS Confocal microscopy, quick-freeze deep-etch electron microscopy, and real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) were used to investigate temporal and spatial patterns of type VI collagen protein deposition and gene expression by bovine chondrocytes during 4 weeks of culture within a 2% agarose hydrogel. Similar analyses were performed on chondrocytes within samples of intact cartilage obtained from the same joint surfaces as those used for cell isolation for comparison. RESULTS Type VI collagen accumulated uniformly around cells embedded in agarose, with the rate of deposition slowing after the second week. After 1 week, PCM fibrils were observed to be oriented perpendicular to the cell surface, in contrast with the primarily tangential fibrillar arrangement observed in native articular cartilage. Expression of col6 in agarose-embedded cells was initially much higher ( approximately 400%) than that in chondrocytes within cartilage. Expression of col6 in the cultured chondrocytes declined by approximately 60% after 1 week, and remained stable thereafter. CONCLUSIONS PCM structure and composition around cells in a hydrogel scaffold may be different than that in native cartilage, with potential implications for mass transport, mechanotransduction, and ultimately, the success of tissue engineering approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Dimicco
- Center for Biomedical Engineering and Biological Engineering Division, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.
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37
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Hu JC, Athanasiou KA. A self-assembling process in articular cartilage tissue engineering. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 12:969-79. [PMID: 16674308 DOI: 10.1089/ten.2006.12.969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 208] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Current therapies for articular cartilage defects often result in fibrocartilaginous tissue. To achieve regeneration with hyaline articular cartilage, tissue-engineering approaches employing cell-seeded scaffolds have been investigated. However, limitations of scaffolds include phenotypic alteration of cells, stress-shielding, hindrance of neotissue organization, and degradation product toxicity. This study employs a self-assembling process to produce tissue-engineered constructs over agarose in vitro without using a scaffold. Compared to past studies using various meshes and gels as scaffolding materials, the self-assembly method yielded constructs with comparable GAG and collagen content. By 12 weeks, the self-assembling process resulted in tissue-engineered constructs that were hyaline- like in appearance with histological, biochemical, and biomechanical properties approaching those of native articular cartilage. Overall, constructs contained two thirds more GAG per dry weight than calf articular cartilage. Collagen per dry weight reached more than one third the level of native tissue. IHC and gel electrophoresis showed collagen type II production and absence of collagen type I. More importantly, self-assembled constructs reached well over one third the stiffness of native tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerry C Hu
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, USA
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38
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Albrecht DR, Underhill GH, Wassermann TB, Sah RL, Bhatia SN. Probing the role of multicellular organization in three-dimensional microenvironments. Nat Methods 2006; 3:369-75. [PMID: 16628207 DOI: 10.1038/nmeth873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 385] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2005] [Accepted: 03/17/2006] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Successful application of living cells in regenerative medicine requires an understanding of how tissue structure relates to organ function. There is growing evidence that presentation of extracellular cues in a three-dimensional (3D) context can fundamentally alter cellular responses. Thus, microenvironment studies that previously were limited to adherent two-dimensional (2D) cultures may not be appropriate for many cell types. Here we present a method for the rapid formation of reproducible, high-resolution 3D cellular structures within a photopolymerizable hydrogel using dielectrophoretic forces. We demonstrate the parallel formation of >20,000 cell clusters of precise size and shape within a thin 2-cm(2) hydrogel and the maintenance of high cell viability and differentiated cell markers over 2 weeks. By modulating cell-cell interactions in 3D clusters, we present the first evidence that microscale tissue organization regulates bovine articular chondrocyte biosynthesis. This platform permits investigation of tissue architecture in other multicellular processes, from embryogenesis to regeneration to tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk R Albrecht
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
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39
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Ng L, Hung HH, Sprunt A, Chubinskaya S, Ortiz C, Grodzinsky A. Nanomechanical properties of individual chondrocytes and their developing growth factor-stimulated pericellular matrix. J Biomech 2006; 40:1011-23. [PMID: 16793050 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2006.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2005] [Accepted: 04/04/2006] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The nanomechanical properties of individual cartilage cells (chondrocytes) and their aggrecan and collagen-rich pericellular matrix (PCM) were measured via atomic force microscope nanoindentation using probe tips of two length scales (nanosized and micron-sized). The properties of cells freshly isolated from cartilage tissue (devoid of PCM) were compared to cells that were cultured for selected times (up to 28 days) in 3-D alginate gels which enabled PCM assembly and accumulation. Cells were immobilized and kept viable in pyramidal wells microfabricated into an array on silicon chips. Hertzian contact mechanics and finite element analyses were employed to estimate apparent moduli from the force versus depth curves. The effects of culture conditions on the resulting PCM properties were studied by comparing 10% fetal bovine serum to medium containing a combination of insulin growth factor-1 (IGF-1)+osteogenic protein-1 (OP-1). While both systems showed increases in stiffness with time in culture between days 7 and 28, the IGF-1+OP-1 combination resulted in a higher stiffness for the cell-PCM composite by day 28 and a higher apparent modulus of the PCM which is compared to the FBS cultured cells. These studies give insight into the temporal evolution of the nanomechanical properties of the pericellar matrix relevant to the biomechanics and mechanobiology of tissue-engineered constructs for cartilage repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurel Ng
- Biological Engineering Division, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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40
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Zhang Z, Fan J, Becker KG, Graff RD, Lee GM, Francomano CA. Comparison of gene expression profile between human chondrons and chondrocytes: a cDNA microarray study. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2006; 14:449-59. [PMID: 16414292 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2005.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2005] [Accepted: 11/19/2005] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The chondron is a basic unit of articular cartilage that includes the chondrocyte and its pericellular matrix (PCM). This current study was designed to investigate the effects of the chondron PCM on the gene expression profile of chondrocytes. DESIGN Chondrons and chondrocytes were enzymatically isolated from human articular cartilage, and maintained in pellet culture. Pellets of chondrons or chondrocytes were collected at days 1, 3 and 5 for cDNA microarray analysis. RESULTS In comparison with chondrocytes alone, chondrons had 258 genes, in a broad range of functional categories, either up- or downregulated at the three time points tested. At day 1, 26 genes were significantly upregulated in chondrons and four downregulated in comparison to chondrocytes. At day 3, the number of upregulated chondron genes was 97 and the number downregulated was 43. By day 5, there were more downregulated genes (56) than upregulated genes (32) in chondrons. Upregulation of a group of heat shock proteins (HSPA1A, HSPA2 and HSPA8) in chondrons was validated by real time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Genes related to chondrocyte hypertrophy and dedifferentiation such as SSP1 and DCN were downregulated in chondrons as compared to the expression in chondrocytes. CONCLUSION The presence of the PCM in chondrons has a profound influence on chondrocyte gene expression. Upregulation of the heat shock protein 70 may contribute to the robustness and active matrix production of chondrons. The intact PCM may further stabilize the phenotype of chondrocytes within chondrons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N. Charles Street, Clark Hall 102, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA.
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41
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Hidvegi NC, Sales KM, Izadi D, Ong J, Kellam P, Eastwood D, Butler PEM. A low temperature method of isolating normal human articular chondrocytes. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2006; 14:89-93. [PMID: 16242358 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2005.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2004] [Accepted: 08/16/2005] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Numerous methods for isolation of human chondrocytes are reported in the literature, most based on isolation from animal cartilage. Normal human articular cartilage (NHAC) poses particular problems for isolating chondrocytes when compared to animal or other types of human cartilage: a hardy matrix, combined with few and friable chondrocytes makes isolation difficult. Our objective was to develop an efficient method of isolating chondrocytes from NHAC without jeopardising the viability of these cells. DESIGN In this study we demonstrate that lowering the enzymatic digestion temperature to 27 degrees C increases cell yield and chondrocyte viability. We then optimised this low temperature isolation of chondrocytes from NHAC by comparing the relative efficacies of trypsin and protease and hyaluronidase in combination with different types of collagenase (I, II and XI) at releasing chondrocytes from their surrounding cartilaginous matrix. Enzymes were tested at different concentrations and for differing times. Outcome measures included determining the amount of cartilage digested, the number of viable chondrocytes isolated per gram of cartilage and cell adherence rates. CONCLUSIONS From these set of experiments, the method that maximised cell yield without jeopardising cell viability proved to be a two stage process: pre-digestion step using trypsin for 15 min; followed by overnight digestion with a combination of two types of collagenase (types I and II) and at a lower temperature of 27 degrees C. This has resulted in an efficient and robust method of releasing chondrocytes from cartilage, without jeopardising the viability of these cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- N C Hidvegi
- Department of Plastic Surgery, Royal Free Hospital School of Medicine, London, UK.
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42
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Lübke C, Ringe J, Krenn V, Fernahl G, Pelz S, Kreusch-Brinker R, Sittinger M, Paulitschke M. Growth characterization of neo porcine cartilage pellets and their use in an interactive culture model. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2005; 13:478-87. [PMID: 15922182 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2004.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2002] [Accepted: 01/16/2004] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The aim of this study was to evaluate the growth characteristics of freshly isolated porcine chondrocytes in high-density pellet cultures and to preliminary investigate their use in an interactive in vitro model with synovial fibroblast cell lines to study rheumatoid arthritis (RA). DESIGN 1.8x10(6) chondrocytes/cm2 were seeded in 48-multiwell plates. Thickness, cell number and cell distribution in pellet cross sections were documented over a 22-day-long period. Alcian blue staining, type I and type II collagen staining, real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) were used to characterize cartilage extracellular matrix (ECM) formation, and cell proliferation was demonstrated by Ki67 staining. Furthermore, 2-week-old chondrocyte pellets were co-cultured for additional 2 weeks with two human synovial fibroblast cell lines derived from a normal donor (non-invasive cell line) and a RA patient (invasive-aggressive (IA) cell line), respectively. RESULTS Chondrocyte pellets from 11 individual preparations showed a significant increase in pellet thickness from 44+/-19 microm (day 3) to 282+/-19 microm (day 22). Calculation of chondrocyte distribution, cell number and pellet thickness indicated that pellet growth was due to ECM formation and not cell proliferation. This was also confirmed by low numbers of Ki67 positive chondrocytes and absence of cell clusters. HPLC, messenger RNA-analysis, histochemistry and antibody staining verified the expression of ECM components such as type II collagen, whereas type I collagen expression was very low. In contrast to the non-aggressive synovial fibroblast cell line, the IA synovial fibroblast cell line clearly showed cartilage invasion. CONCLUSION Pellet formation of freshly isolated chondrocytes followed a reproducible developmental kinetics and showed typical immature hyaline cartilage properties. Such uniform cartilage pellets are very useful as a substrate for interactive cell culture models that simulate diseases like RA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Lübke
- VasoTissue Technologies GmbH, Department of Research and Development, Tucholskystrasse 2, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
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43
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Mercier NR, Costantino HR, Tracy MA, Bonassar LJ. Poly(lactide-co-glycolide) microspheres as a moldable scaffold for cartilage tissue engineering. Biomaterials 2005; 26:1945-52. [PMID: 15576168 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2004.06.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2004] [Accepted: 06/17/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
This study demonstrates the use of biodegradable poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLG) microspheres as a moldable scaffold for cartilage tissue engineering. Chondrocytes were delivered to a cylindrical mold with or without PLG microspheres and cultured in vitro for up to 8 weeks. Cartilagenous tissue formed using chondrocytes and microspheres maintained thickness, shape, and chondrocyte collagen type II phenotype, as indicated by type II collagen staining. The presence of microspheres further enhanced total tissue mass and the amount of glycosaminoglycan that accumulated. Evaluation of microsphere composition demonstrated effects of polymer molecular weight, end group chemistry, and buffer inclusion on tissue-engineered cartilage growth. Higher molecular weight PLG resulted in a larger mass of cartilage-like tissue formed and a higher content of proteoglycans. Cartilage-like tissue formed using microspheres made from low molecular weight and free carboxylic acid end groups did not display increases in tissue mass, yet a modest increased proteoglycan accumulation was detected. Microspheres comprised of PLG with methyl ester end groups yielded a steady increase in tissue mass, with no real increase in matrix accumulation. The microencapsulation of Mg(OH)(2) had negative effects on tissue mass and matrix accumulation. The data herein reflect the potential utility of a moldable PLG-chondrocyte system for tissue-engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nichole R Mercier
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, MA, USA
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Tew SR, Li Y, Pothacharoen P, Tweats LM, Hawkins RE, Hardingham TE. Retroviral transduction with SOX9 enhances re-expression of the chondrocyte phenotype in passaged osteoarthritic human articular chondrocytes. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2005; 13:80-9. [PMID: 15639641 DOI: 10.1016/j.joca.2004.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2004] [Accepted: 10/05/2004] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Articular chondrocytes proliferate in monolayer culture, but the expression of the transcription factor SOX9 falls and the ability of the cells to reform cartilage tissue declines. We have investigated whether retroviral SOX9 expression in extensively passaged human articular chondrocytes from osteoarthritic (OA) joints enables the cells to regain a cartilage matrix forming phenotype in pellet culture. DESIGN Chondrocytes from normal and OA joints were retrovirally transduced with SOX9 and grown to passages 7-10 before being cultured as pellets of 500,000 cells for 14 days. Pellets were analysed by real time polymerase chain reaction, histology, immunohistochemistry and 1,9-dimethylmethylene blue assay. RESULTS Chondrocytes from OA joints displayed higher expression of COL2A1 gene when transduced with SOX9 and cultured as pellets with 10% serum, but glycosaminoglycan (GAG) synthesis was low. Addition of transforming growth factor beta-3 and insulin like growth factor-1 increased collagen II expression and GAG synthesis in these SOX9 transduced cell pellets. The cells adopted a rounded morphology and there was increased deposition of collagen II protein compared to control green fluorescent protein transduced cell pellets. Similar results were seen with transduced chondrocytes from OA or healthy cartilage. SOX9 transduced human dermal fibroblasts did not show any chondrogenic response. DISCUSSION Transduction with SOX9 primed the passaged articular chondrocytes to regain a chondrocytic phenotype in pellet culture and to form a cartilaginous matrix, which was enhanced by growth factors. Following transduction, chondrocytes from OA joints showed a similar capacity for chondrogenic recovery as those from healthy joints, which suggested that OA does not permanently compromise the chondrocyte phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon R Tew
- UK Centre for Tissue Engineering at The Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
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Allen DM, Mao JJ. Heterogeneous nanostructural and nanoelastic properties of pericellular and interterritorial matrices of chondrocytes by atomic force microscopy. J Struct Biol 2004; 145:196-204. [PMID: 14960370 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2003.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2003] [Revised: 09/30/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Hyaline cartilage consists of sparse chondrocytes and abundant extracellular matrix. There is a paucity of experimental data in support of the notion of conceivable regional differences in the mechanical properties of chondral matrices. Upon visual differentiation of the pericellular and interterritorial matrices in each of 19 fresh growth plate samples with toluidine blue and alizarin red labels, nanoindentation was applied separately to the pericellular matrix and interterritorial matrix to using fluid-phase atomic force microscopy and real-time imaging. The interterritorial matrix demonstrated elongated parallel ridges, whereas the pericellular matrix showed irregular, short-range elevations with characteristic pores and canals. Analysis of surface contours at 600nm(2) scan size revealed that the interterritorial matrix had significantly greater surface roughness (71+/-18nm; mean+/-SE) than the pericellular matrix (24+/-4nm) ( P< 0.001). The average Young's modulus of the interterritorial matrix was 636+/-123 (kPa), significantly greater than the pericellular matrix (265+/-53kPa) (P< 0.001 ). Thus, the interterritorial matrix appears to possess not only distinct microtopographic contours in comparison with the pericellular matrix, but also significantly greater mechanical stiffness. These distinctive nanostructural and nanomechanical properties may have implications in nutrient diffusion and fluid dynamics, both of which are of vital importance for cartilage health and function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel M Allen
- Tissue Engineering Laboratory Rm 237, Departments of Bioengineering and Orthodontics (MC 841), University of Illinois at Chicago, 801 South Paulina Street, Chicago, IL 60612-7211, USA.
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Abstract
For studying mechanotransduction in cultured cells, we developed a microplate assay using a fluorescence/luminescence plate reader equipped with software-controlled injectors to deliver a reproducible mechanical stimulus (adjustable for both timing and force) and immediately measure adenosine 5(')-triphosphate (ATP) release and calcium mobilization. Suspension or adherent chondrocyte cultures in 96-well plates were incubated with firefly luciferase and luciferin for the ATP assay or loaded with Fluo-3-acetoxy methylester for intracellular calcium measurement. Steady state ATP release was measured in resting cells; then mechanical stimulation was delivered by injection of an equal volume of buffer into the wells. Serial integrations of 20 to 500ms allowed real-time analysis of the time course of ATP release. Luminescence increased within 500ms indicating the rapidity of ATP release in chondrocyte mechanotransduction. Subsequent injection of a cell lysis solution allowed quantitation of total cellular ATP as an internal control of cell viability and number. Intracellular calcium was also elevated within 500ms of fluid injection. This assay is easily adapted for changes in intracellular pH or other ions by use of different commercially available fluorescent indicators. The live-cell assay using fluid injection as a mechanical stimulus is a valuable tool for dissecting the role of signaling pathways in mechanotransduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald D Graff
- Department of Orthopaedics and Thurston Arthritis Research Center, University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA.
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