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Eisenhut P, Marx N, Borsi G, Papež M, Ruggeri C, Baumann M, Borth N. Manipulating gene expression levels in mammalian cell factories: An outline of synthetic molecular toolboxes to achieve multiplexed control. N Biotechnol 2024; 79:1-19. [PMID: 38040288 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbt.2023.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/26/2023] [Indexed: 12/03/2023]
Abstract
Mammalian cells have developed dedicated molecular mechanisms to tightly control expression levels of their genes where the specific transcriptomic signature across all genes eventually determines the cell's phenotype. Modulating cellular phenotypes is of major interest to study their role in disease or to reprogram cells for the manufacturing of recombinant products, such as biopharmaceuticals. Cells of mammalian origin, for example Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) and Human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells, are most commonly employed to produce therapeutic proteins. Early genetic engineering approaches to alter their phenotype have often been attempted by "uncontrolled" overexpression or knock-down/-out of specific genetic factors. Many studies in the past years, however, highlight that rationally regulating and fine-tuning the strength of overexpression or knock-down to an optimum level, can adjust phenotypic traits with much more precision than such "uncontrolled" approaches. To this end, synthetic biology tools have been generated that enable (fine-)tunable and/or inducible control of gene expression. In this review, we discuss various molecular tools used in mammalian cell lines and group them by their mode of action: transcriptional, post-transcriptional, translational and post-translational regulation. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using these tools for each cell regulatory layer and with respect to cell line engineering approaches. This review highlights the plethora of synthetic toolboxes that could be employed, alone or in combination, to optimize cellular systems and eventually gain enhanced control over the cellular phenotype to equip mammalian cell factories with the tools required for efficient production of emerging, more difficult-to-express biologics formats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Eisenhut
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (acib GmbH), Muthgasse 11, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Nicolas Marx
- BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Institute of Animal Cell Technology and Systems Biology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Giulia Borsi
- BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Institute of Animal Cell Technology and Systems Biology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Maja Papež
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (acib GmbH), Muthgasse 11, 1190 Vienna, Austria; BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Institute of Animal Cell Technology and Systems Biology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Caterina Ruggeri
- BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Institute of Animal Cell Technology and Systems Biology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Martina Baumann
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (acib GmbH), Muthgasse 11, 1190 Vienna, Austria
| | - Nicole Borth
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (acib GmbH), Muthgasse 11, 1190 Vienna, Austria; BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Institute of Animal Cell Technology and Systems Biology, Muthgasse 18, 1190 Vienna, Austria.
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2
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Xu X, Zhang Y, Pan Z, Zhang X, Liu X, Tang L, Zhang X, Zhou F, Cheng H. Genome-wide DNA methylation of Munro's microabscess reveals the epigenetic regulation in the pathogenesis of psoriasis. Front Immunol 2022; 13:1057839. [PMID: 36569916 PMCID: PMC9773074 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.1057839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Munro's microabscess is a typical pathological feature in the early psoriatic lesion, mainly characterized by the accumulation of neutrophils in the epidermis. DNA methylation microenvironment of Munro's microabscess and the crosstalk with transcription and its effect on neutrophils have not yet been revealed. Methods Performed genome-wide DNA methylation analysis and further differential methylation analysis of psoriatic skin lesions with and without Munro's microabscess from two batch samples consisting of 114 former samples in the discovery stage and 21 newly-collected samples in the validation stage. Utilized GO, MEME, and other tools to conduct downstream analysis on differentially methylated sites (DMSs). Correlation analysis of methylation level and transcriptome data was also conducted. Results We observed 647 overlapping DMSs associated with Munro's microabscess. Subsequently, GO pathway analysis revealed that DNA methylation might affect the physical properties associated with skin cells through focal adhesion and cellsubstrate junction and was likely to recruit neutrophils in the epidermis. Via the MEME tool, used to investigate the possible binding transcription factors (TFs) of 20 motifs around the 647 DMSs, it was found that DNA methylation regulated the binding of AP1 family members and the recruitment of neutrophils in the epidermis through the TGF-beta pathway and the TH17 pathway. Meanwhile, combined with our earlier transcriptome data, we found DNA methylation would regulate the expressions of CFDP, SIRT6, SMG6, TRAPPC9, HSD17B7, and KIAA0415, indicating these genes would potentially promote the process of Munro's microabscess. Discussion In conclusion, DNA methylation may affect the course of psoriasis by regulating the progression of Munro's microabscess in psoriatic skin lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoqing Xu
- Department of Dermatology, the First Affiliated Hospital, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China,Institute of Dermatology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China,Key Laboratory of Dermatology (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Yuxi Zhang
- Department of Dermatology, the First Affiliated Hospital, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China,Institute of Dermatology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China,Key Laboratory of Dermatology (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Zhaobing Pan
- Department of Dermatology, the First Affiliated Hospital, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China,Institute of Dermatology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China,Key Laboratory of Dermatology (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Xiaojing Zhang
- Department of Dermatology, the First Affiliated Hospital, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China,Institute of Dermatology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China,Key Laboratory of Dermatology (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Xiaonan Liu
- Department of Dermatology, the First Affiliated Hospital, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China,Institute of Dermatology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China,Key Laboratory of Dermatology (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Lili Tang
- Department of Dermatology, the First Affiliated Hospital, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China,Institute of Dermatology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China,Key Laboratory of Dermatology (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education, Hefei, Anhui, China
| | - Xiaoguang Zhang
- Department of Dermatology, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China,*Correspondence: Hui Cheng, ; Fusheng Zhou, ; Xiaoguang Zhang,
| | - Fusheng Zhou
- Department of Dermatology, the First Affiliated Hospital, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China,Institute of Dermatology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China,Key Laboratory of Dermatology (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education, Hefei, Anhui, China,Inflammation and Immune Mediated Diseases Laboratory of Anhui Province, Hefei, Anhui, China,*Correspondence: Hui Cheng, ; Fusheng Zhou, ; Xiaoguang Zhang,
| | - Hui Cheng
- Department of Dermatology, the First Affiliated Hospital, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China,Institute of Dermatology, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, Anhui, China,Key Laboratory of Dermatology (Anhui Medical University), Ministry of Education, Hefei, Anhui, China,*Correspondence: Hui Cheng, ; Fusheng Zhou, ; Xiaoguang Zhang,
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Weinguny M, Eisenhut P, Klanert G, Virgolini N, Marx N, Jonsson A, Ivansson D, Lövgren A, Borth N. Random epigenetic modulation of CHO cells by repeated knockdown of DNA methyltransferases increases population diversity and enables sorting of cells with higher production capacities. Biotechnol Bioeng 2020; 117:3435-3447. [PMID: 32662873 PMCID: PMC7818401 DOI: 10.1002/bit.27493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells produce a large share of today's biopharmaceuticals. Still, the generation of satisfactory producer cell lines is a tedious undertaking. Recently, it was found that CHO cells, when exposed to new environmental conditions, modify their epigenome, suggesting that cells adapt their gene expression pattern to handle new challenges. The major aim of the present study was to employ artificially induced, random changes in the DNA-methylation pattern of CHO cells to diversify cell populations and consequently increase the finding of cell lines with improved cellular characteristics. To achieve this, DNA methyltransferases and/or the ten-eleven translocation enzymes were downregulated by RNA interference over a time span of ∼16 days. Methylation analysis of the resulting cell pools revealed that the knockdown of DNA methyltransferases was highly effective in randomly demethylating the genome. The same approach, when applied to stable CHO producer cells resulted in (a) an increased productivity diversity in the cell population, and (b) a higher number of outliers within the population, which resulted in higher specific productivity and titer in the sorted cells. These findings suggest that epigenetics play a previously underestimated, but actually important role in defining the overall cellular behavior of production clones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus Weinguny
- ACIB—Austrian Centre of Industrial BiotechnologyGrazAustria,Department of BiotechnologyUniversity of Natural Resources and Life SciencesViennaAustria
| | - Peter Eisenhut
- ACIB—Austrian Centre of Industrial BiotechnologyGrazAustria,Department of BiotechnologyUniversity of Natural Resources and Life SciencesViennaAustria
| | - Gerald Klanert
- ACIB—Austrian Centre of Industrial BiotechnologyGrazAustria
| | | | - Nicolas Marx
- ACIB—Austrian Centre of Industrial BiotechnologyGrazAustria,Department of BiotechnologyUniversity of Natural Resources and Life SciencesViennaAustria
| | | | | | | | - Nicole Borth
- ACIB—Austrian Centre of Industrial BiotechnologyGrazAustria,Department of BiotechnologyUniversity of Natural Resources and Life SciencesViennaAustria
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4
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Marx N, Grünwald-Gruber C, Bydlinski N, Dhiman H, Ngoc Nguyen L, Klanert G, Borth N. CRISPR-Based Targeted Epigenetic Editing Enables Gene Expression Modulation of the Silenced Beta-Galactoside Alpha-2,6-Sialyltransferase 1 in CHO Cells. Biotechnol J 2018; 13:e1700217. [DOI: 10.1002/biot.201700217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Revised: 05/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Marx
- Department of Biotechnology; BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences; Muthgasse 18 1190 Vienna Austria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology GmbH; Graz Austria
| | - Clemens Grünwald-Gruber
- Department of Biotechnology; BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences; Muthgasse 18 1190 Vienna Austria
| | - Nina Bydlinski
- Department of Biotechnology; BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences; Muthgasse 18 1190 Vienna Austria
| | - Heena Dhiman
- Department of Biotechnology; BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences; Muthgasse 18 1190 Vienna Austria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology GmbH; Graz Austria
| | - Ly Ngoc Nguyen
- Department of Biotechnology; BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences; Muthgasse 18 1190 Vienna Austria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology GmbH; Graz Austria
| | - Gerald Klanert
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology GmbH; Graz Austria
| | - Nicole Borth
- Department of Biotechnology; BOKU University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences; Muthgasse 18 1190 Vienna Austria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology GmbH; Graz Austria
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5
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Sampey D, Courville P, Acree D, Hausfeld J, Bentley WE. Enhanced expression of a biosimilar monoclonal antibody with a novel NS0 platform. Biotechnol Prog 2018; 34:455-462. [DOI: 10.1002/btpr.2596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2017] [Revised: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Darryl Sampey
- BioFactura, Inc., 8435 Progress Drive, Suite Z; Frederick MD 21701
| | - Pascal Courville
- BioFactura, Inc., 8435 Progress Drive, Suite Z; Frederick MD 21701
| | - David Acree
- BioFactura, Inc., 8435 Progress Drive, Suite Z; Frederick MD 21701
| | - Jeffrey Hausfeld
- BioFactura, Inc., 8435 Progress Drive, Suite Z; Frederick MD 21701
| | - William E. Bentley
- Maryland Center of Excellence in Regulatory Science and Innovation (CERSI), University of Maryland, College Park; MD 20742
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6
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Zhao L, Fu HY, Raju R, Vishwanathan N, Hu WS. Unveiling gene trait relationship by cross-platform meta-analysis on Chinese hamster ovary cell transcriptome. Biotechnol Bioeng 2017; 114:1583-1592. [PMID: 28218403 DOI: 10.1002/bit.26272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Revised: 01/17/2017] [Accepted: 02/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
In the past few years, transcriptome analysis has been increasingly employed to better understand the physiology of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells at a global level. As more transcriptome data accumulated, meta-analysis on data sets collected from various sources can potentially provide better insights on common properties of those cells. Here, we performed meta-analysis on transcriptome data of different CHO cell lines obtained using NimbleGen or Affymetrix microarray platforms. Hierarchical clustering, non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) analysis, and principal component analysis (PCA) accordantly showed the samples were clustered into two groups: one consists of adherent cells in serum-containing medium, and the other suspension cells in serum-free medium. Genes that were differentially expressed between the two clusters were enriched in a few functional classes by Database for Annotation, Visualization, and Integrated Discovery (DAVID) of which many were common with the enriched gene sets identified by Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA), including extracellular matrix (ECM) receptor interaction, cell adhesion molecules (CAMs), and lipid related metabolism pathways. Despite the heterogeneous sources of the cell samples, the adherent and suspension growth characteristics and serum-supplementation appear to be a dominant feature in the transcriptome. The results demonstrated that meta-analysis of transcriptome could uncover features in combined data sets that individual data set might not reveal. As transcriptome data sets accumulate over time, meta-analysis will become even more revealing. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2017;114: 1583-1592. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai, 200237, China
| | - Hsu-Yuan Fu
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Ravali Raju
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Nandita Vishwanathan
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
| | - Wei-Shou Hu
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota
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7
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Chauhan G, Schmelzer AE. A novel cholesterol/lipid delivery system for murine myeloma cell lines. Biotechnol Prog 2017; 33:795-803. [DOI: 10.1002/btpr.2441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2016] [Revised: 12/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Gaurav Chauhan
- Department of Cell Culture and Fermentation SciencesMedImmune, One Medimmune WayGaithersburg MD20878
| | - Albert E. Schmelzer
- Department of Cell Culture and Fermentation SciencesMedImmune, One Medimmune WayGaithersburg MD20878
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8
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Feichtinger J, Hernández I, Fischer C, Hanscho M, Auer N, Hackl M, Jadhav V, Baumann M, Krempl PM, Schmidl C, Farlik M, Schuster M, Merkel A, Sommer A, Heath S, Rico D, Bock C, Thallinger GG, Borth N. Comprehensive genome and epigenome characterization of CHO cells in response to evolutionary pressures and over time. Biotechnol Bioeng 2016; 113:2241-53. [PMID: 27072894 PMCID: PMC5006888 DOI: 10.1002/bit.25990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2015] [Revised: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The most striking characteristic of CHO cells is their adaptability, which enables efficient production of proteins as well as growth under a variety of culture conditions, but also results in genomic and phenotypic instability. To investigate the relative contribution of genomic and epigenetic modifications towards phenotype evolution, comprehensive genome and epigenome data are presented for six related CHO cell lines, both in response to perturbations (different culture conditions and media as well as selection of a specific phenotype with increased transient productivity) and in steady state (prolonged time in culture under constant conditions). Clear transitions were observed in DNA‐methylation patterns upon each perturbation, while few changes occurred over time under constant conditions. Only minor DNA‐methylation changes were observed between exponential and stationary growth phase; however, throughout a batch culture the histone modification pattern underwent continuous adaptation. Variation in genome sequence between the six cell lines on the level of SNPs, InDels, and structural variants is high, both upon perturbation and under constant conditions over time. The here presented comprehensive resource may open the door to improved control and manipulation of gene expression during industrial bioprocesses based on epigenetic mechanisms. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2016;113: 2241–2253. © 2016 The Authors. Biotechnology and Bioengineering Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Feichtinger
- Austrian Center of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 11, Vienna, 1190, Austria.,Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria
| | - Inmaculada Hernández
- Austrian Center of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 11, Vienna, 1190, Austria
| | - Christoph Fischer
- Austrian Center of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 11, Vienna, 1190, Austria.,Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria
| | - Michael Hanscho
- Austrian Center of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 11, Vienna, 1190, Austria
| | - Norbert Auer
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Muthgasse 18, Vienna, 1190, Austria
| | - Matthias Hackl
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Muthgasse 18, Vienna, 1190, Austria
| | - Vaibhav Jadhav
- Austrian Center of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 11, Vienna, 1190, Austria
| | - Martina Baumann
- Austrian Center of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 11, Vienna, 1190, Austria
| | - Peter M Krempl
- Austrian Center of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 11, Vienna, 1190, Austria.,Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria
| | - Christian Schmidl
- CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Matthias Farlik
- CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Schuster
- CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Andreas Sommer
- Research Institute of Molecular Pathology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Simon Heath
- Center for Genomic Regulation (CRG), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Daniel Rico
- Spanish National Cancer Research Center (CNIO), Madrid, Spain
| | - Christoph Bock
- CeMM Research Center for Molecular Medicine, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gerhard G Thallinger
- Austrian Center of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 11, Vienna, 1190, Austria.,Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria
| | - Nicole Borth
- Austrian Center of Industrial Biotechnology, Muthgasse 11, Vienna, 1190, Austria. .,University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna, Muthgasse 18, Vienna, 1190, Austria.
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Harreither E, Hackl M, Pichler J, Shridhar S, Auer N, Łabaj PP, Scheideler M, Karbiener M, Grillari J, Kreil DP, Borth N. Microarray profiling of preselected CHO host cell subclones identifies gene expression patterns associated with increased production capacity. Biotechnol J 2015; 10:1625-38. [PMID: 26315449 DOI: 10.1002/biot.201400857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2014] [Revised: 06/22/2015] [Accepted: 08/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Over the last three decades, product yields from CHO cells have increased dramatically, yet specific productivity (qP) remains a limiting factor. In a previous study, using repeated cell-sorting, we have established different host cell subclones that show superior transient qP over their respective parental cell lines (CHO-K1, CHO-S). The transcriptome of the resulting six cell lines in different biological states (untransfected, mock transfected, plasmid transfected) was first explored by hierarchical clustering and indicated that gene activity associated with increased qP did not stem from a certain cellular state but seemed to be inherent for a high qP host line. We then performed a novel gene regression analysis identifying drivers for an increase in qP. Genes significantly implicated were first systematically tested for enrichment of GO terms using a Bayesian approach incorporating the hierarchical structure of the GO term tree. Results indicated that specific cellular components such as nucleus, ER, and Golgi are relevant for cellular productivity. This was complemented by targeted GSA that tested functionally homogeneous, manually curated subsets of KEGG pathways known to be involved in transcription, translation, and protein processing. Significantly implicated pathways included mRNA surveillance, proteasome, protein processing in the ER and SNARE interactions in vesicular transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Harreither
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Matthias Hackl
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Johannes Pichler
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Smriti Shridhar
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Paweł P Łabaj
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marcel Scheideler
- RNA Biology Group, Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria
| | - Michael Karbiener
- RNA Biology Group, Institute for Genomics and Bioinformatics, Graz University of Technology, Graz, Austria
| | - Johannes Grillari
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - David P Kreil
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Nicole Borth
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria. .,ACIB GmbH, Graz, Austria.
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Waterham HR, Hennekam RCM. Mutational spectrum of Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF MEDICAL GENETICS PART C-SEMINARS IN MEDICAL GENETICS 2012; 160C:263-84. [PMID: 23042628 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.c.31346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (SLOS; OMIM #270400) is an autosomal recessive malformation syndrome characterized by a large spectrum of morphogenic and congenital anomalies. SLOS is caused by mutations in the DHCR7 gene, which encodes 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase, the enzyme that catalyzes the final step in cholesterol biosynthesis. We report on 154 currently known mutations in DHCR7 identified in patients affected with SLOS and discuss their coding consequences. These 154 mutations include 130 missense, 8 nonsense, 8 deletions, 2 insertions, 1 indel, and 5 splice site mutations. Using information available from published case reports and from patients identified in our clinical diagnostic laboratory, we analyzed correlations between genotype, clinical presentation and 7-dehydrocholesterol level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans R Waterham
- Laboratory Genetic Metabolic Diseases (F0-222), Academic Medical Center, Meibergdreef 9, 1105AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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11
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Li J, Gu W, Edmondson DG, Lu C, Vijayasankaran N, Figueroa B, Stevenson D, Ryll T, Li F. Generation of a cholesterol-independent, non-GS NS0 cell line through chemical treatment and application for high titer antibody production. Biotechnol Bioeng 2012; 109:1685-92. [DOI: 10.1002/bit.24450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2011] [Revised: 12/20/2011] [Accepted: 01/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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12
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Rodrigues A, Amaral A, Veríssimo V, Alves P, Coroadinha A. Adaptation of retrovirus producer cells to serum deprivation: Implications in lipid biosynthesis and vector production. Biotechnol Bioeng 2012; 109:1269-79. [DOI: 10.1002/bit.24410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2011] [Revised: 11/22/2011] [Accepted: 12/07/2011] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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13
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Li F, Vijayasankaran N, Shen AY, Kiss R, Amanullah A. Cell culture processes for monoclonal antibody production. MAbs 2010; 2:466-79. [PMID: 20622510 PMCID: PMC2958569 DOI: 10.4161/mabs.2.5.12720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 433] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Animal cell culture technology has advanced significantly over the last few decades and is now generally considered a reliable, robust and relatively mature technology. A range of biotherapeutics are currently synthesized using cell culture methods in large scale manufacturing facilities that produce products for both commercial use and clinical studies. The robust implementation of this technology requires optimization of a number of variables, including 1) cell lines capable of synthesizing the required molecules at high productivities that ensure low operating cost; 2) culture media and bioreactor culture conditions that achieve both the requisite productivity and meet product quality specifications; 3) appropriate on-line and off-line sensors capable of providing information that enhances process knowledge; and 4) good understanding of culture performance at different scales to ensure smooth scale-up. Successful implementation also requires appropriate strategies for process development, scale-up and process characterization and validation that enable robust operation that is compliant with current regulations. This review provides an overview of the state-of-the art technology in key aspects of cell culture, e.g., engineering of highly productive cell lines and optimization of cell culture process conditions. We also summarize the current thinking on appropriate process development strategies and process advances that might affect process development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Li
- Oceanside Pharma Technical Development, Pharma Technical Development US Biologics, Genentech, Oceanside, CA, USA
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14
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Taramino S, Teske B, Oliaro-Bosso S, Bard M, Balliano G. Divergent interactions involving the oxidosqualene cyclase and the steroid-3-ketoreductase in the sterol biosynthetic pathway of mammals and yeasts. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2010; 1801:1232-7. [PMID: 20659585 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2010.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2010] [Revised: 07/19/2010] [Accepted: 07/20/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In mammals and yeasts, oxidosqualene cyclase (OSC) catalyzes the formation of lanosterol, the first cyclic intermediate in sterol biosynthesis. We used a murine myeloma cell line (NS0), deficient in the 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 7 (HSD17B7), as a model to study the potential interaction of the HSD17B7 with the OSC in mammals. HSD17B7 is the orthologue of the yeast steroid-3-ketoreductase (ERG27), an enzyme of ergosterol biosynthesis that plays a protective role towards OSC. Tracer experiments with NS0 cells showed that OSC is fully active in these mammalian cells, suggesting that in mammals the ketosteroid reductase is not required for OSC activity. Mouse and human HSD17B7 were overexpressed in ERG27-deletant yeast cells, and recombinant strains were tested for (i) the ability to grow on different media, (ii) steroid-3-ketoreductase activity, and (iii) OSC activity. Recombinant strains grew more slowly than the control yeast ERG27-overexpressing strain on sterol-deficient media, whereas the growth rate was normal on media supplemented with a 3-ketoreductase substrate. The full enzymatic functionality of mammalian steroid-3-ketoreductase expressed in yeast along with the lack of (yeast) OSC activity point to an inability of the mammalian reductase to assist yeast OSC. Results demonstrate that in mammals, unlike in yeast, OSC and steroid-3-ketoreductase are non-interacting proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Taramino
- Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia del Farmaco, Università di Torino, Via Pietro Giuria 9, Torino, Italy
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15
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Ifere GO, Equan A, Gordon K, Nagappan P, Igietseme JU, Ananaba GA. Cholesterol and phytosterols differentially regulate the expression of caveolin 1 and a downstream prostate cell growth-suppressor gene. Cancer Epidemiol 2010; 34:461-71. [PMID: 20466611 DOI: 10.1016/j.canep.2010.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2008] [Revised: 04/10/2010] [Accepted: 04/12/2010] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The purpose of our study was to show the distinction between the apoptotic and anti-proliferative signaling of phytosterols and cholesterol-enrichment in prostate cancer cell lines, mediated by the differential transcription of caveolin-1, and N-myc downstream-regulated gene 1 (NDRG1), a pro-apoptotic androgen-regulated tumor suppressor. METHODS PC-3 and DU145 cells were treated with sterols (cholesterol and phytosterols) for 72h, followed by trypan blue dye-exclusion measurement of necrosis and cell growth measured with a Coulter counter. Sterol induction of cell growth-suppressor gene expression was evaluated by mRNA transcription using RT-PCR, while cell cycle analysis was performed by FACS analysis. Altered expression of Ndrg1 protein was confirmed by Western blot analysis. Apoptosis was evaluated by real time RT-PCR amplification of P53, Bcl-2 gene and its related pro- and anti-apoptotic family members. RESULTS Physiological doses (16microM) of cholesterol and phytosterols were not cytotoxic in these cells. Cholesterol-enrichment promoted cell growth (P<0.05), while phytosterols significantly induced growth-suppression (P<0.05) and apoptosis. Cell cycle analysis showed that contrary to cholesterol, phytosterols decreased mitotic subpopulations. We demonstrated for the first time that cholesterols concertedly attenuated the expression of caveolin-1 (cav-1) and NDRG1 genes in both prostate cancer cell lines. Phytosterols had the opposite effect by inducing overexpression of cav-1, a known mediator of androgen-dependent signals that presumably control cell growth or apoptosis. CONCLUSIONS Cholesterol and phytosterol treatment differentially regulated the growth of prostate cancer cells and the expression of p53 and cav-1, a gene that regulates androgen-regulated signals. These sterols also differentially regulated cell cycle arrest, downstream pro-apoptotic androgen-regulated tumor suppressor, NDRG1 suggesting that cav-1 may mediate pro-apoptotic NDRG1 signals. Elucidation of the mechanism for sterol modulation of growth and apoptosis signaling may reveal potential targets for cancer prevention and/or chemotherapeutic intervention. Sterol regulation of NDRG1 transcription suggests its potential as biomarker for prediction of neoplasms that would be responsive to chemoprevention by phytosterols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Godwin O Ifere
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clark Atlanta University, Atlanta, GA 30314, USA.
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16
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Rodrigues AF, Carmo M, Alves PM, Coroadinha AS. Retroviral vector production under serum deprivation: The role of lipids. Biotechnol Bioeng 2010; 104:1171-81. [PMID: 19655394 DOI: 10.1002/bit.22499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
The use of retroviral vectors for gene therapy applications demands high titer preparations and stringent quality standards. However, the manufacturing of these vectors still represents a highly challenging task due to the low productivity of the cell lines and reduced stability of the vector infectivity, particularly under serum-free conditions. With the objective of understanding the major limitations of retroviral vector production under serum deprivation, a thorough study of viral production kinetics, vector characterization and cell growth and metabolic behavior was conducted, for 293 FLEX 18 and Te Fly Ga 18 producer cell lines using different serum concentrations. The reduction of serum supplementation in the culture medium resulted in pronounced decreases in cell productivity of infectious vector, up to ninefold in 293 FLEX 18 cells and sevenfold in Te Fly Ga 18 cells. Total particles productivity was maintained, as assessed by measuring viral RNA; therefore, the decrease in infectious vector production could be attributed to higher defective particles output. The absence of the serum lipid fraction was found to be the major cause for this decrease in cell viral productivity. The use of delipidated serum confirmed the requirement of serum lipids, particularly cholesterol, as its supplementation not only allowed the total recovery of viral titers as well as additional production increments in both cell lines when comparing with the standard 10% (v/v) FBS supplementation. This work identified lower production ratios of infectious particles/total particles as the main restraint of retroviral vector production under serum deprivation; this is of the utmost importance concerning the clinical efficacy of the viral preparations. Lipids were confirmed as the key serum component correlated with the production of infective retroviral vectors and this knowledge can be used to efficiently design medium supplementation strategies for serum-free production. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2009; 104: 1171-1181. (c) 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- A F Rodrigues
- Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, IBET/ITQB-UNL, Oeiras, Portugal
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Graf A, Dragosits M, Gasser B, Mattanovich D. Yeast systems biotechnology for the production of heterologous proteins. FEMS Yeast Res 2009; 9:335-48. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1567-1364.2009.00507.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
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18
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Griffin TJ, Seth G, Xie H, Bandhakavi S, Hu WS. Advancing mammalian cell culture engineering using genome-scale technologies. Trends Biotechnol 2007; 25:401-8. [PMID: 17681628 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2007.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2007] [Revised: 05/21/2007] [Accepted: 07/18/2007] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian cell-derived protein therapeutic production has changed the landscape of human healthcare in the past two decades. The importance of protein therapeutics has motivated the search for more cost-effective and efficient cell lines capable of producing high quality protein products. The factors contributing to optimal producer cell lines are often complex, and not simply conferred by one gene or gene product, which makes an understanding of system-wide properties for better engineering of optimized cell lines essential. Genome-scale technologies (genomics, transcriptomics and proteomics) enable such engineering studies. However, the use of these technologies in cell culture engineering is still in its infancy. Here, we summarize current knowledge of cell properties important for the design of efficient protein-producing mammalian cell lines, and highlight relevant studies to-date that use genome-scale technologies in these cell systems. We also provide a focused review of relevant alternative and emerging technologies, which have seen limited use in cell culture engineering, but hold great potential for significant advancements in protein therapeutic production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J Griffin
- Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
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19
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Hartman TE, Sar N, Genereux K, Barritt DS, He Y, Burky JE, Wesson MC, Tso JY, Tsurushita N, Zhou W, Sauer PW. Derivation and characterization of cholesterol-independent non-GS NS0 cell lines for production of recombinant antibodies. Biotechnol Bioeng 2007; 96:294-306. [PMID: 16897745 DOI: 10.1002/bit.21099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Presented is an antibody production platform based on the fed-batch culture of recombinant NS0-derived cell lines. NS0 host cells, obtained from the European Collection of Cell Cultures (ECACC, Salisbury, UK, Part No. 85110503), were first adapted to grow in a protein-free, cholesterol-free medium. The resulting host cell line was designated NS0-PFCF (protein-free, cholesterol-free). The five production cell lines presented here were generated using a common protocol consisting of transfection by electroporation and subcloning. The NS0-PFCF host cell line was transfected using a single expression vector containing the Escherichia coli xanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase gene (gpt), and the antibody heavy and light chain genes driven by the CMV promoter. The five cell lines were chosen after one to three rounds of iterative subcloning, which resulted in a 19-64% increase in antibody productivity when four mother-daughter cell pairs were cultured in a fed-batch bioreactor process. The production cell lines were genetically characterized to determine antibody gene integrity, nucleotide sequences, copy number, and the number of insertion sites in the NS0 cell genome. Genetic characterization data indicate that each of the five production cell lines has a single stably integrated copy of the antibody expression vector, and that the antibody genes are correctly expressed. Stability of antibody production was evaluated for three of the five cell lines by comparing the early stage seed bank with the Working Cell Bank (WCB). Antibody productivity was shown to be stable in two of three cell lines evaluated, while one of the cell lines exhibited a 20% drop in productivity after passaging for approximately 4 weeks. These five NS0-derived production cell lines were successfully cultured to produce antibodies with acceptable product quality attributes in a standardized fed-batch bioreactor process, consistently achieving an average specific productivity of 20-60 pg/cell-day, and a volumetric productivity exceeding 120 mg/L-day (Burky et al., 2006). In contrast to the commonly available NS0 host cell line, which requires serum and cholesterol for growth, and the commonly used expression vector system, which uses a proprietary glutamine synthetase selection marker (GS-NS0), these NS0 cells are cholesterol-independent, grow well in a protein-free medium, use a non-proprietary selection marker, and do not require gene amplification for productivity improvement. These characteristics are advantageous for use of this NS0 cell line platform for manufacturing therapeutic antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taymar E Hartman
- Process Sciences and Engineering, PDL BioPharma, Inc., 34801 Campus Drive, Fremont, California 94555, USA.
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Kuystermans D, Krampe B, Swiderek H, Al-Rubeai M. Using cell engineering and omic tools for the improvement of cell culture processes. Cytotechnology 2007; 53:3-22. [PMID: 19003186 DOI: 10.1007/s10616-007-9055-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2006] [Accepted: 01/25/2007] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Significant strides have been made in mammalian cell based biopharmaceutical process and cell line development over the past years. With several established mammalian host cell lines and expression systems, optimization of selection systems to reduce development times and improvement of glycosylation patterns are only some of the advances being made to improve cell culture processes. In this article, the advances pertaining to cell line development and cell engineering strategies are discussed. An overview of the cell engineering strategies to enhance cellular characteristics by genetic manipulation are illustrated, focusing on the use of genomics and proteomics tools and their application in such endeavors. Included in this review are some of the early studies using the 'omic' technique to understand cellular mechanisms of product synthesis and secretion, apoptosis, cell proliferation and the influence of the physicochemical environment. The article highlights the significance of integrating genomics and proteomics data with the vast amounts of bioprocess data for improved analysis of the biological pathways involved. Further improvements of the techniques and methodologies used are needed but ultimately, the new cell engineering strategies should provide great insight into the regulatory networks within the cell in a bioprocess environment and how to manipulate them to increase overall productivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darrin Kuystermans
- School of Chemical and Bioprocess Engineering and Centre for Synthesis and Chemical Biology, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland
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Okonkowski J, Balasubramanian U, Seamans C, Fries S, Zhang J, Salmon P, Robinson D, Chartrain M. Cholesterol delivery to NS0 cells: Challenges and solutions in disposable linear low-density polyethylene-based bioreactors. J Biosci Bioeng 2007; 103:50-9. [PMID: 17298901 DOI: 10.1263/jbb.103.50] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2006] [Accepted: 10/13/2006] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
We report the successful cultivation of cholesterol dependent NS0 cells in linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) Wave Bioreactors when employing a low ratio of cyclodextrin to cholesterol additive mixture. While cultivation of NS0 cells in Wave Bioreactors was successful when using a culture medium supplemented with fetal bovine serum (FBS), cultivation with the same culture medium supplemented with cholesterol-lipid concentrate (CLC), which contains lipids and synthetic cholesterol coupled with the carrier methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (mbetaCD), proved to be problematic. However, it was possible to cultivate NS0 cells in the medium supplemented with CLC when using conventional cultivation vessels such as disposable polycarbonate shake-flasks and glass bioreactors. A series of experiments investigating the effect of the physical conditions in Wave Bioreactors (e.g., rocking rate/angle, gas delivery mode) ruled out their likely influence, while the exposure of the cells to small squares of Wave Bioreactor film resulted in a lack of growth as in the Wave Bioreactor, suggesting an interaction between the cells, the CLC, and the LLDPE contact surface. Further experiments with both cholesterol-independent and cholesterol-dependent NS0 cells established that the concurrent presence of mbetaCD in the culture medium and the LLDPE film was sufficient to inhibit growth for both cell types. By reducing the excess mbetaCD added to the culture medium, it was possible to successfully cultivate cholesterol-dependent NS0 cells in Wave Bioreactors using a cholesterol-mbetaCD complex as the sole source of exogenous cholesterol. We propose that the mechanism of growth inhibition involves the extraction of cholesterol from cell membranes by the excess mbetaCD in the medium, followed with the irreversible adsorption or entrapment of the cholesterol-mbetaCD complexes to the LLDPE surface of the Wave Bioreactor. Controlling and mitigating these negative interactions enabled the routine utilization of disposable bioreactors for the cultivation of cholesterol-dependent NS0 cell lines in conjunction with an animal component-free cultivation medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Okonkowski
- Merck Research Laboratories, Bioprocess R&D, PO Box 2000, RY80Y-105, Rahway, NJ 07065, USA
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22
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Toward genomic cell culture engineering. Cytotechnology 2006; 50:121-40. [PMID: 19003075 DOI: 10.1007/s10616-006-9004-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2006] [Accepted: 03/24/2006] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Genomic and proteomic based global gene expression profiling has altered the landscape of biological research in the past few years. Its potential impact on cell culture bioprocessing has only begun to emanate, partly due to the lack of genomic sequence information for the most widely used industrial cells, Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells. Transcriptome and proteome profiling work for species lacking extensive genomic resources must rely on information for other related species or on data obtained from expressed sequence tag (EST) sequencing projects, for which burgeoning efforts have only recently begun. This article discusses the aspects of EST sequencing in those industrially important, genomic resources-poor cell lines, articulates some of the unique features in employing microarray in the study of cultured cells, and highlights the infrastructural needs in establishing a platform for genomics based cell culture research. Recent experience has revealed that generally, most changes in culture conditions only elicit a moderate level of alteration in gene expression. Nevertheless, by broadening the conventional scope of microarray analysis to consider estimated levels of transcript abundance, much physiological insight can be gained. Examples of the application of microarray in cell culture are discussed, and the utility of pattern identification and process diagnosis are highlighted. As genomic resources continue to expand, the power of genomic tools in cell culture processing research will be amply evident. The key to harnessing the immense benefit of these genomic resources resides in the development of physiological understanding from their application.
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Seth G, Hossler P, Yee JC, Hu WS. Engineering cells for cell culture bioprocessing--physiological fundamentals. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2006; 101:119-64. [PMID: 16989260 DOI: 10.1007/10_017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In the past decade, we have witnessed a tremendous increase in the number of mammalian cell-derived therapeutic proteins with clinical applications. The success of making these life-saving biologics available to the public is partly due to engineering efforts to enhance process efficiency. To further improve productivity, much effort has been devoted to developing metabolically engineered producing cells, which possess characteristics favorable for large-scale bioprocessing. In this article we discuss the fundamental physiological basis for cell engineering. Different facets of cellular mechanisms, including metabolism, protein processing, and the balancing pathways of cell growth and apoptosis, contribute to the complex traits of favorable growth and production characteristics. We present our assessment of the current state of the art by surveying efforts that have already been undertaken in engineering cells for a more robust process. The concept of physiological homeostasis as a key determinant and its implications on cell engineering is emphasized. Integrating the physiological perspective with cell culture engineering will facilitate attainment of dream cells with superlative characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gargi Seth
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, 421 Washington Avenue SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455-0132, USA
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