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Zinnecker T, Reichl U, Genzel Y. Innovations in cell culture-based influenza vaccine manufacturing - from static cultures to high cell density cultivations. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2024; 20:2373521. [PMID: 39007904 PMCID: PMC11253887 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2024.2373521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Influenza remains a serious global health concern, causing significant morbidity and mortality each year. Vaccination is crucial to mitigate its impact, but requires rapid and efficient manufacturing strategies to handle timing and supply. Traditionally relying on egg-based production, the field has witnessed a paradigm shift toward cell culture-based methods offering enhanced flexibility, scalability, and process safety. This review provides a concise overview of available cell substrates and technological advancements. We summarize crucial steps toward process intensification - from roller bottle production to dynamic cultures on carriers and from suspension cultures in batch mode to high cell density perfusion using various cell retention devices. Moreover, we compare single-use and conventional systems and address challenges including defective interfering particles. Taken together, we describe the current state-of-the-art in cell culture-based influenza virus production to sustainably meet vaccine demands, guarantee a timely supply, and keep up with the challenges of seasonal epidemics and global pandemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tilia Zinnecker
- Bioprocess Engineering, Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical Systems, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Udo Reichl
- Bioprocess Engineering, Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical Systems, Magdeburg, Germany
- Bioprocess Engineering, Otto-von-Guericke University, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Yvonne Genzel
- Bioprocess Engineering, Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical Systems, Magdeburg, Germany
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Lee K, Williams KV, Englund JA, Sullivan SG. The Potential Benefits of Delaying Seasonal Influenza Vaccine Selections for the Northern Hemisphere: A Retrospective Modeling Study in the United States. J Infect Dis 2024; 230:131-140. [PMID: 39052711 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiad541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 11/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Antigenic similarity between vaccine viruses and circulating viruses is crucial for achieving high vaccine effectiveness against seasonal influenza. New non-egg-based vaccine production technologies could revise current vaccine formulation schedules. We aim to assess the potential benefit of delaying seasonal influenza vaccine virus selection decisions. METHODS We identified seasons where season-dominant viruses presented increasing prevalence after vaccine formulation had been decided in February for the Northern Hemisphere, contributing to their antigenic discrepancy with vaccine viruses. Using a SEIR (susceptible-exposed-infectious-recovered) model of seasonal influenza in the United States, we evaluated the impact of updating vaccine decisions with more antigenically similar vaccine viruses on the influenza burden in the United States. RESULTS In 2014-2015 and 2019-2020, the season-dominant A(H3N2) subclade and B/Victoria clade, respectively, presented increasing prevalence after vaccine decisions were already made for the Northern Hemisphere. Our model showed that the updated A(H3N2) vaccine could have averted 5000-65 000 influenza hospitalizations in the United States in 2014-2015, whereas updating the B/Victoria vaccine component did not substantially change influenza burden in the 2019-2020 season. CONCLUSIONS With rapid vaccine production, revising current timelines for vaccine selection could result in substantial epidemiological benefits, particularly when additional data could help improve the antigenic match between vaccine and circulating viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyueun Lee
- Comparative Health Outcomes Policy and Economics (CHOICE) Institute, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle
| | - Katherine V Williams
- Department of Family Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Janet A Englund
- Seattle Children's Research Institute, Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle
| | - Sheena G Sullivan
- World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Influenza, Royal Melbourne Hospital
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Tingaud V, Bordes C, Al Mouazen E, Cogné C, Bolzinger MA, Lawton P. Experimental studies from shake flasks to 3 L stirred tank bioreactor of nutrients and oxygen supply conditions to improve the growth of the avian cell line DuckCelt®-T17. J Biol Eng 2023; 17:31. [PMID: 37095522 PMCID: PMC10127095 DOI: 10.1186/s13036-023-00349-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 04/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND To produce viral vaccines, avian cell lines are interesting alternatives to replace the egg-derived processes for viruses that do not grow well on mammalian cells. The avian suspension cell line DuckCelt®-T17 was previously studied and investigated to produce a live attenuated metapneumovirus (hMPV)/respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and influenza virus vaccines. However, a better understanding of its culture process is necessary for an efficient production of viral particles in bioreactors. RESULTS The growth and metabolic requirements of the avian cell line DuckCelt®-T17 were investigated to improve its cultivation parameters. Several nutrient supplementation strategies were studied in shake flasks highlighting the interest of (i) replacing L-glutamine by glutamax as main nutrient or (ii) adding these two nutrients in the serum-free growth medium in a fed-batch strategy. The scale-up in a 3 L bioreactor was successful for these types of strategies confirming their efficiencies in improving the cells' growth and viability. Moreover, a perfusion feasibility test allowed to achieve up to ~ 3 times the maximum number of viable cells obtained with the batch or fed-batch strategies. Finally, a strong oxygen supply - 50% dO2 - had a deleterious effect on DuckCelt®-T17 viability, certainly because of the greater hydrodynamic stress imposed. CONCLUSIONS The culture process using glutamax supplementation with a batch or a fed-batch strategy was successfully scaled-up to 3 L bioreactor. In addition, perfusion appeared as a very promising culture process for subsequent continuous virus harvesting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentine Tingaud
- LAGEPP, Laboratoire d'Automatique, de Génie des Procédés et de Génie Pharmaceutique, GePharm Team, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR5007, 43 Boulevard du 11 Novembre 1918, Villeurbanne CEDEX, 69622, France
| | - Claire Bordes
- LAGEPP, Laboratoire d'Automatique, de Génie des Procédés et de Génie Pharmaceutique, GePharm Team, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR5007, 43 Boulevard du 11 Novembre 1918, Villeurbanne CEDEX, 69622, France
| | - Eyad Al Mouazen
- LAGEPP, Laboratoire d'Automatique, de Génie des Procédés et de Génie Pharmaceutique, GePharm Team, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR5007, 43 Boulevard du 11 Novembre 1918, Villeurbanne CEDEX, 69622, France
| | - Claudia Cogné
- LAGEPP, Laboratoire d'Automatique, de Génie des Procédés et de Génie Pharmaceutique, GePharm Team, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR5007, 43 Boulevard du 11 Novembre 1918, Villeurbanne CEDEX, 69622, France
| | - Marie-Alexandrine Bolzinger
- LAGEPP, Laboratoire d'Automatique, de Génie des Procédés et de Génie Pharmaceutique, GePharm Team, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR5007, 43 Boulevard du 11 Novembre 1918, Villeurbanne CEDEX, 69622, France
| | - Philippe Lawton
- LAGEPP, Laboratoire d'Automatique, de Génie des Procédés et de Génie Pharmaceutique, GePharm Team, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR5007, 43 Boulevard du 11 Novembre 1918, Villeurbanne CEDEX, 69622, France.
- Laboratoire d'Automatique, de Génie des Procédés et de Génie Pharmaceutique, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, ISPB, 8 avenue Rockefeller, Lyon, 69373, CEDEX 08, France.
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Ton C, Stabile V, Carey E, Maraikar A, Whitmer T, Marrone S, Afanador NL, Zabrodin I, Manomohan G, Whiteman M, Hofmann C. Development and scale-up of rVSV-SARS-CoV-2 vaccine process using single use bioreactor. BIOTECHNOLOGY REPORTS (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2023; 37:e00782. [PMID: 36687766 PMCID: PMC9841742 DOI: 10.1016/j.btre.2023.e00782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The outbreak of the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that causes the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) has spread through the globe at an alarming speed. The disease has become a global pandemic affecting millions of people and created public health crises worldwide. Among many efforts to urgently develop a vaccine against this disease, we developed an industrial-scale closed, single use manufacturing process for V590, a vaccine candidate for SARS-CoV-2. V590 is a recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (rVSV) genetically engineered to express SARS-CoV-2 glycoprotein. In this work, we describe the development and optimization of serum-free microcarrier production of V590 in Vero cells in a closed system. To achieve the maximum virus productivity, we optimized pH and temperature during virus production in 3 liters (L) bioreactors. Virus productivity was improved (by ∼1 log) by using pH 7.0 and temperature at 34.0 °C. The optimal production condition was successfully scaled up to a 2000 L Single Use Bioreactor (SUB), producing a maximum virus titer of ∼1.0e+7 plaque forming units (PFU)/mL. Further process intensification and simplification, including growing Vero cells at 2 gs per liter (g/L) of Cytodex-1 Gamma microcarriers and eliminating the media exchange (MX) step prior to infection helped to increase virus productivity by ∼2-fold.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Ton
- Vaccine Process Development, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania, 19486, United States,Corresponding author.
| | - Victoria Stabile
- Vaccine Process Development, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania, 19486, United States
| | - Elizabeth Carey
- Vaccine Process Development, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania, 19486, United States
| | - Adam Maraikar
- Bioprocess Clinical Manufacturing & Technology, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania, 19486, United States
| | - Travis Whitmer
- Bioprocess Drug Substance Commercialization, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania, 19486, United States
| | - Samantha Marrone
- Vaccine Process Development, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania, 19486, United States
| | - Nelson Lee Afanador
- Biostatistics and Research Decision Sciences, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania, 19486, United States
| | - Igor Zabrodin
- Vaccine Process Development, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania, 19486, United States
| | - Greeshma Manomohan
- Currently at GlaxoSmithKline plc, King of Prussia, Pennsylvania, 19406, United States
| | - Melissa Whiteman
- Analytical Research & Development, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania 19486, United States
| | - Carl Hofmann
- Analytical Research & Development, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania 19486, United States
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Bissinger T, Wu Y, Marichal-Gallardo P, Riedel D, Liu X, Genzel Y, Tan WS, Reichl U. Towards integrated production of an influenza A vaccine candidate with MDCK suspension cells. Biotechnol Bioeng 2021; 118:3996-4013. [PMID: 34219217 DOI: 10.1002/bit.27876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Seasonal influenza epidemics occur both in northern and southern hemispheres every year. Despite the differences in influenza virus surface antigens and virulence of seasonal subtypes, manufacturers are well-adapted to respond to this periodical vaccine demand. Due to decades of influenza virus research, the development of new influenza vaccines is relatively straight forward. In similarity with the ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, vaccine manufacturing is a major bottleneck for a rapid supply of the billions of doses required worldwide. In particular, egg-based vaccine production would be difficult to schedule and shortages of other egg-based vaccines with high demands also have to be anticipated. Cell culture-based production systems enable the manufacturing of large amounts of vaccines within a short time frame and expand significantly our options to respond to pandemics and emerging viral diseases. In this study, we present an integrated process for the production of inactivated influenza A virus vaccines based on a Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) suspension cell line cultivated in a chemically defined medium. Very high titers of 3.6 log10 (HAU/100 µl) were achieved using fast-growing MDCK cells at concentrations up to 9.5 × 106 cells/ml infected with influenza A/PR/8/34 H1N1 virus in 1 L stirred tank bioreactors. A combination of membrane-based steric-exclusion chromatography followed by pseudo-affinity chromatography with a sulfated cellulose membrane adsorber enabled full recovery for the virus capture step and up to 80% recovery for the virus polishing step. Purified virus particles showed a homogenous size distribution with a mean diameter of 80 nm. Based on a monovalent dose of 15 µg hemagglutinin (single-radial immunodiffusion assay), the level of total protein and host cell DNA was 58 µg and 10 ng, respectively. Furthermore, all process steps can be fully scaled up to industrial quantities for commercial manufacturing of either seasonal or pandemic influenza virus vaccines. Fast production of up to 300 vaccine doses per liter within 4-5 days makes this process competitive not only to other cell-based processes but to egg-based processes as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Bissinger
- Bioprocess Engineering, Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical Systems, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Yixiao Wu
- Bioprocess Engineering, Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical Systems, Magdeburg, Germany.,State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Pavel Marichal-Gallardo
- Bioprocess Engineering, Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical Systems, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Dietmar Riedel
- Facility for Transmission Electron Microscopy, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Xuping Liu
- Shanghai BioEngine Sci-Tech Co., Shanghai, China
| | - Yvonne Genzel
- Bioprocess Engineering, Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical Systems, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Wen-Song Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China.,Shanghai BioEngine Sci-Tech Co., Shanghai, China
| | - Udo Reichl
- Bioprocess Engineering, Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical Systems, Magdeburg, Germany.,Chair of Bioprocess Engineering, Otto von Guericke University Magdeburg, Magdeburg, Germany
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Ganguly M, Yeolekar L, Tyagi P, Sagar U, Narale S, Anaspure Y, Tupe S, Wadkar K, Ingle N, Dhere R, Scorza FB, Mahmood K. Evaluation of manufacturing feasibility and safety of an MDCK cell-based live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV) platform. Vaccine 2020; 38:8379-8386. [PMID: 33229107 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2020.10.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 10/24/2020] [Accepted: 10/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Cell culture based live attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIV) as an alternative to egg-based LAIV have been explored because of lack of easy access to SPF eggs for large scale production. In this study, feasibility of MDCK platform was assessed by including multiple LAIV strains covering both type A (H1 and H3) and type B seasonal strains as well as the candidate pandemic potential strains like A/H5 and A/H7 for the growth in MDCK cells. A risk assessment study was conducted on the cell banks to evaluate safety concerns related to tumorigenicity with a regulatory perspective. Tumorigenic potential of the MDCK cells was evaluated in nude mice (107cells/mouse) model system. The 50% tumor producing dose (TPD50) of MDCK cells was studied in SCID mice to determine the amount of cells required for induction of tumors. Further, we conducted an oncogenicity study in three sensitive rodent species as per the requirements specified in the WHO guidelines. We determined TPD50 value of 1.9 X 104 cells/mice through subcutaneous route. Our results suggest that, the intranasal route of administration of the cell culture based LAIV pose minimal to no risk of tumorigenicity associated with the host cells. Also, non-oncogenic nature of MDCK cells was demonstrated. Host cell DNA in the vaccine formulations was < 10 ng/dose which ensures vaccine safety. Production efficiency and consistency were characterized and the observed titer values of the viral harvest and the processed bulk were comparable to the expansion in embryonated eggs. The present study clearly establishes the suitability of MDCK cells as a substrate for the manufacture of a safe and viable LAIV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milan Ganguly
- Serum Institute of India Private Limited, 212/2, Hadapsar, Pune, India.
| | - Leena Yeolekar
- Serum Institute of India Private Limited, 212/2, Hadapsar, Pune, India
| | - Parikshit Tyagi
- Serum Institute of India Private Limited, 212/2, Hadapsar, Pune, India
| | - Umesh Sagar
- Serum Institute of India Private Limited, 212/2, Hadapsar, Pune, India
| | - Swapnil Narale
- Serum Institute of India Private Limited, 212/2, Hadapsar, Pune, India
| | | | - Sham Tupe
- Serum Institute of India Private Limited, 212/2, Hadapsar, Pune, India
| | - Kuntinath Wadkar
- Serum Institute of India Private Limited, 212/2, Hadapsar, Pune, India
| | - Nilesh Ingle
- Serum Institute of India Private Limited, 212/2, Hadapsar, Pune, India
| | - Rajeev Dhere
- Serum Institute of India Private Limited, 212/2, Hadapsar, Pune, India
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Junter GA, Lebrun L. Polysaccharide-based chromatographic adsorbents for virus purification and viral clearance. J Pharm Anal 2020; 10:291-312. [PMID: 32292625 PMCID: PMC7104128 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpha.2020.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Revised: 01/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses still pose a significant threat to human and animal health worldwide. In the fight against viral infections, high-purity viral stocks are needed for manufacture of safer vaccines. It is also a priority to ensure the viral safety of biopharmaceuticals such as blood products. Chromatography techniques are widely implemented at both academic and industrial levels in the purification of viral particles, whole viruses and virus-like particles to remove viral contaminants from biopharmaceutical products. This paper focuses on polysaccharide adsorbents, particulate resins and membrane adsorbers, used in virus purification/removal chromatography processes. Different chromatographic modes are surveyed, with particular attention to ion exchange and affinity/pseudo-affinity adsorbents among which commercially available agarose-based resins (Sepharose®) and cellulose-based membrane adsorbers (Sartobind®) occupy a dominant position. Mainly built on the development of new ligands coupled to conventional agarose/cellulose matrices, the development perspectives of polysaccharide-based chromatography media in this antiviral area are stressed in the conclusive part.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guy-Alain Junter
- Normandie Univ, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, CNRS, PBS, 76000, Rouen, France
| | - Laurent Lebrun
- Normandie Univ, UNIROUEN, INSA Rouen, CNRS, PBS, 76000, Rouen, France
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8
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Process intensification for Peste des Petites Ruminants Virus vaccine production. Vaccine 2019; 37:7041-7051. [PMID: 31402239 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2019] [Revised: 05/17/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Process intensification for Peste des Petites Ruminants Virus (PPRV) vaccine production in anchorage dependent Vero cells is challenging, involving substantial amount of bioprocess development. In this study, we describe the implementation of a new, scalable bioprocess for PPRV vaccine production in Vero cells using serum-free medium (SFM), microcarrier technology in stirred-tank bioreactors (STB), in-situ cell detachment from microcarriers and perfusion. Vero cells were successfully adapted to ProVero™-1 SFM, reaching growth rates similar to serum-containing cultures (0.030 1/h vs 0.026 1/h, respectively). An in-situ cell detachment method was successfully implemented, with efficiencies above 85%. Up to 2.5-fold increase in maximum cell concentration was obtained using perfusion when compared to batch culture. Combining perfusion with the in-situ cell detachment method enabled the scale-up to 20 L STB directly from a 2 L STB, surpassing the need for a mid-scale platform (i.e. 5 L STB) and thus reducing seed train duration. Head-to-head comparison of cell growth and PPRV production in the 2 L and 20 L STB was performed, and no significant differences could be observed. Estimated infectious PPRV titers in Tissue Culture Infection Dose (TCID50) (TCID50/mL = 5 × 106 and TCID50/cell = 5) are within the log-range reported in literature for PPRV production in STB and SFM by Silva et al. (2008), thus confirming the feasibility and scalability of the seed train designed [1]. The novel and scalable vaccine production process herein proposed has the potential to assist the upcoming Peste des Petites Ruminants (PPR) Global Eradication Program (targeted by FAAO for 2030) by providing African local and/or regional manufacturers with a platform capable of generating over 25,000 doses of Nigeria 75/1 strain in just 19 days using a 20 L STB.
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White KM, Ayllon J, Mena I, Potenski A, Krammer F, García-Sastre A. Influenza B virus reverse genetic backbones with improved growth properties in the EB66® cell line as basis for vaccine seed virus generation. Vaccine 2018; 36:1146-1153. [PMID: 29395518 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.01.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 01/12/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Vaccination remains the best available prophylaxis to prevent influenza virus infections, yet current inadequacies in influenza virus vaccine manufacturing often lead to vaccine shortages at times when the vaccine is most needed, as it was the case during the last influenza virus pandemic. Novel influenza virus vaccine production systems will be crucial to improve public health and safety. Here we report the optimization of influenza B virus growth in the proprietary EB66® cell line, currently in use for human vaccine production. To this end, we collected, curated and sequenced 71 influenza B viruses selected for high diversity in date of isolation and lineage. This viral collection was tested for ability to enter and replicate within EB66® cells in a single cycle assay and appears to readily infect these cells. When the collection was tested for viral progeny production in a multi-cycle assay, we found a large variation from strain to strain. The strains with the top growth characteristics from the B/Victoria and B/Yamagata lineages were selected for vaccine backbone generation using a reverse genetics system. We then showed that these backbones maintain their desirable growth within EB66® cells when the HA and NA from poorly growing strains were substituted for the parental segments, indicating that the selected backbones are viable options for vaccine production in EB66®. Finally, we show that compounds previously reported to enhance influenza virus growth in cell culture also increase virus production in the EB66® cell line.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kris M White
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, NY, USA.
| | - Juan Ayllon
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, NY, USA
| | - Ignacio Mena
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, NY, USA
| | - Anna Potenski
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, NY, USA
| | - Florian Krammer
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, NY, USA
| | - Adolfo García-Sastre
- Department of Microbiology, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, NY, USA; Department of Medicine, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, NY, USA; Global Health and Emerging Pathogens Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, NY, USA
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Löffelholz C, Kaiser SC, Kraume M, Eibl R, Eibl D. Dynamic Single-Use Bioreactors Used in Modern Liter- and m(3)- Scale Biotechnological Processes: Engineering Characteristics and Scaling Up. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2016; 138:1-44. [PMID: 23609177 DOI: 10.1007/10_2013_187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023]
Abstract
During the past 10 years, single-use bioreactors have been well accepted in modern biopharmaceutical production processes targeting high-value products. Up to now, such processes have mainly been small- or medium-scale mammalian cell culture-based seed inoculum, vaccine or antibody productions. However, recently first attempts have been made to modify existing single-use bioreactors for the cultivation of plant cells and tissue cultures, and microorganisms. This has even led to the development of new single-use bioreactor types. Moreover, due to safety issues it has become clear that single-use bioreactors are the "must have" for expanding human stem cells delivering cell therapeutics, the biopharmaceuticals of the next generation. So it comes as no surprise that numerous different dynamic single-use bioreactor types, which are suitable for a wide range of applications, already dominate the market today. Bioreactor working principles, main applications, and bioengineering data are presented in this review, based on a current overview of greater than milliliter-scale, commercially available, dynamic single-use bioreactors. The focus is on stirred versions, which are omnipresent in R&D and manufacturing, and in particular Sartorius Stedim's BIOSTAT family. Finally, we examine development trends for single-use bioreactors, after discussing proven approaches for fast scaling-up processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Löffelholz
- School of Life Sciences and Facility Management, Institute of Biotechnology, Zurich University of Applied Sciences (ZHAW), 8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland,
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Hegde NR. Cell culture-based influenza vaccines: A necessary and indispensable investment for the future. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2016; 11:1223-34. [PMID: 25875691 DOI: 10.1080/21645515.2015.1016666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The traditional platform of using embryonated chicken eggs for the production of influenza vaccines has several drawbacks including the inability to meet the volume of required doses in the case of widespread epidemics and pandemics. Cell culture platforms have therefore been explored in the last 2 decades, and have attracted further attention following the H1N1 pandemic outbreak. This platform, while not the most economical for large-scale production, has several advantages, and can supplement the vaccine requirement when needed. Recent developments in production technologies have contributed greatly to fine-tuning this platform. In combination with other technologies such as live attenuated and recombinant protein or virus-like particle vaccines, and different adjuvants and delivery systems, cell culture-based influenza vaccine platform can be used both for production of seasonal vaccine, and to mitigate vaccine shortages in pandemic situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nagendra R Hegde
- a Ella Foundation; Genome Valley; Turkapally , Shameerpet Mandal , Hyderabad , India
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12
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Cell-laden Polymeric Microspheres for Biomedical Applications. Trends Biotechnol 2015; 33:653-666. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2015.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2015] [Revised: 08/10/2015] [Accepted: 09/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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Isakova-Sivak I, Rudenko L. Safety, immunogenicity and infectivity of new live attenuated influenza vaccines. Expert Rev Vaccines 2015; 14:1313-29. [PMID: 26289975 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2015.1075883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Live attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIVs) are believed to be immunologically superior to inactivated influenza vaccines, because they can induce a variety of adaptive immune responses, including serum antibodies, mucosal and cell-mediated immunity. In addition to the licensed cold-adapted LAIV backbones, a number of alternative LAIV approaches are currently being developed and evaluated in preclinical and clinical studies. This review summarizes recent progress in the development and evaluation of LAIVs, with special attention to their safety, immunogenicity and infectivity for humans, and discusses their perspectives for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina Isakova-Sivak
- a Department of Virology, Institute of Experimental Medicine, 12 Acad. Pavlov Street, Saint Petersburg, Russia
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Current and emerging cell culture manufacturing technologies for influenza vaccines. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:504831. [PMID: 25815321 PMCID: PMC4359798 DOI: 10.1155/2015/504831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2014] [Revised: 02/05/2015] [Accepted: 02/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Annually, influenza virus infects millions of people worldwide. Vaccination programs against seasonal influenza infections require the production of hundreds of million doses within a very short period of time. The influenza vaccine is currently produced using a technology developed in the 1940s that relies on replicating the virus in embryonated hens' eggs. The monovalent viral preparation is inactivated and purified before being formulated in trivalent or tetravalent influenza vaccines. The production process has depended on a continuous supply of eggs. In the case of pandemic outbreaks, this mode of production might be problematic because of a possible drastic reduction in the egg supply and the low flexibility of the manufacturing process resulting in a lack of supply of the required vaccine doses in a timely fashion. Novel production systems using mammalian or insect cell cultures have emerged to overcome the limitations of the egg-based production system. These industrially well-established production systems have been primarily selected for a faster and more flexible response to pandemic threats. Here, we review the most important cell culture manufacturing processes that have been developed in recent years for mass production of influenza vaccines.
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Kaiser SC, Kraume M, Eibl D, Eibl R. Single-Use Bioreactors for Animal and Human Cells. CELL ENGINEERING 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-10320-4_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
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Perdue ML, Arnold F, Li S, Donabedian A, Cioce V, Warf T, Huebner R. The future of cell culture-based influenza vaccine production. Expert Rev Vaccines 2014; 10:1183-94. [DOI: 10.1586/erv.11.82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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Production of high-titer human influenza A virus with adherent and suspension MDCK cells cultured in a single-use hollow fiber bioreactor. Vaccine 2013; 32:1003-11. [PMID: 24269322 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.11.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2013] [Revised: 10/28/2013] [Accepted: 11/11/2013] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Hollow fiber bioreactors (HFBRs) have been widely described as capable of supporting the production of highly concentrated monoclonal antibodies and recombinant proteins. Only recently HFBRs have been proposed as new single-use platforms for production of high-titer influenza A virus. These bioreactors contain multiple hollow fiber capillary tubes that separate the bioreactor in an intra- and an extra-capillary space. Cells are usually cultured in the extra-capillary space and can grow to a very high cell concentration. This work describes the evaluation of the single-use hollow fiber bioreactor PRIMER HF (Biovest International Inc., USA) for production of influenza A virus. The process was setup, characterized and optimized by running a total of 15 cultivations. The HFBRs were seeded with either adherent or suspension MDCK cells, and infected with influenza virus A/PR/8/34 (H1N1), and the pandemic strain A/Mexico/4108/2009 (H1N1). High HA titers and TCID₅₀ of up to 3.87 log₁₀(HA units/100 μL) and 1.8 × 10(10)virions/mL, respectively, were obtained for A/PR/8/34 influenza strain. Influenza virus was collected by performing multiple harvests of the extra-capillary space during a virus production time of up to 12 days. Cell-specific virus yields between 2,000 and 8,000 virions/cell were estimated for adherent MDCK cells, and between 11,000 and 19,000 virions/cell for suspension MDCK.SUS2 cells. These results do not only coincide with the cell-specific virus yields obtained with cultivations in stirred tank bioreactors and other high cell density systems, but also demonstrate that HFBRs are promising and competitive single-use platforms that can be considered for commercial production of influenza virus.
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Nair H, Lau ESM, Brooks WA, Seong AC, Theodoratou E, Zgaga L, Huda T, Jadhav SS, Rudan I, Campbell H. An evaluation of the emerging vaccines against influenza in children. BMC Public Health 2013; 13 Suppl 3:S14. [PMID: 24564565 PMCID: PMC3847180 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-13-s3-s14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Influenza is an under-appreciated cause of acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI) in children. It is estimated to cause approximately 20 million new episodes of ALRI in children annually, 97% of these occurring in developing countries. It is also estimated to result in 28000 to 112000 deaths annually in young children. Apart from hospitalisations and deaths, influenza has significant economic consequences. The current egg-based inactivated influenza vaccines have several limitations: annual vaccination, high production costs, and cannot respond adequately to meet the demand during pandemics. METHODS We used a modified CHNRI methodology for setting priorities in health research investments. This was done in two stages. In Stage I, we systematically reviewed the literature related to emerging cross-protective vaccines against influenza relevant to several criteria of interest: answerability; cost of development, production and implementation; efficacy and effectiveness; deliverability, affordability and sustainability; maximum potential impact on disease burden reduction; acceptability to the end users and health workers; and effect on equity. In Stage II, we conducted an expert opinion exercise by inviting 20 experts (leading basic scientists, international public health researchers, international policy makers and representatives of pharmaceutical companies). They answered questions from the CHNRI framework and their "collective optimism" towards each criterion was documented on a scale from 0 to 100%. RESULTS The experts expressed very high level of optimism for deliverability, impact on equity, and acceptability to health workers and end users. However, they expressed concerns over the criteria of answerability, low development cost, low product cost, low implementation cost, affordability and, to a lesser extent sustainability. In addition they felt that the vaccine would have higher efficacy and impact on disease burden reduction on overall influenza-associated disease rather than specifically influenza-associated pneumonia. CONCLUSION Although the landscape of emerging influenza vaccines shows several promising candidates, it is unlikely that the advancements in the newer vaccine technologies will be able to progress through to large scale production in the near future. The combined effects of continued investments in researching new vaccines and improvements of available vaccines will hopefully shorten the time needed to the development of an effective seasonal and pandemic influenza vaccine suitable for large scale production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harish Nair
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Global Health Academy, The University of Edinburgh, UK
- Public Health Foundation of India, New Delhi, India
| | - Eva Shi May Lau
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Global Health Academy, The University of Edinburgh, UK
| | - W Abdullah Brooks
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (ICDDR,B), Dhaka, Bangladesh
- Department of International Health, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ang Choon Seong
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Global Health Academy, The University of Edinburgh, UK
| | - Evropi Theodoratou
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Global Health Academy, The University of Edinburgh, UK
| | - Lina Zgaga
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Global Health Academy, The University of Edinburgh, UK
| | - Tanvir Huda
- International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (ICDDR,B), Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | | | - Igor Rudan
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Global Health Academy, The University of Edinburgh, UK
| | - Harry Campbell
- Centre for Population Health Sciences, Global Health Academy, The University of Edinburgh, UK
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Teng Z, Kuang X, Wang J, Zhang X. Real-time cell analysis--a new method for dynamic, quantitative measurement of infectious viruses and antiserum neutralizing activity. J Virol Methods 2013; 193:364-70. [PMID: 23835032 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2013.06.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2013] [Revised: 06/19/2013] [Accepted: 06/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A newly developed electronic cell sensor array--the xCELLigence real-time cell analysis (RTCA) system is tested currently for dynamic monitoring of cell attachment, proliferation, damage, and death. In this study, human enterovirus (HEV71) infection of human rhabdomyosarcoma (RD) was used as an in vitro model to validate the application of this novel system as a straightforward and efficient assay for quantitative measurement of infectious viruses based on virus-induced cytopathic effect (CPE). Several experimental tests were performed including the determination of optimal seeding density of the RD cells in 96-well E-plates, RTCA real-time monitoring of the virus induced CPE and virus titer calculation, and viral neutralization test to determine HEV71 antibody titer. Traditional 50% tissue culture infective dose (TCID50) assay was also conducted for methodology comparison and validation, which indicated a consistent result between the two assays. These findings indicate that the xCELLigence RTCA system can be a valuable addition to current viral assays for quantitative measurement of infectious viruses and quantitation of neutralization antibody titer in real-time, warranting for future research and exploration of applications to many other animal and human viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Teng
- Department of Microbiology, Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai 200336, China
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Chan CYY, Tambyah PA. Preflucel®: a Vero-cell culture-derived trivalent influenza vaccine. Expert Rev Vaccines 2012; 11:759-73. [PMID: 22913252 DOI: 10.1586/erv.12.55] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Vaccination is the principal means to reduce the impact of influenza infection. Effective vaccination programs require a reliable and safe production system. Traditionally, influenza vaccines are produced in embryonated chicken eggs. Over the last two decades, new cell culture-derived vaccines have been licensed and manufactured, and other vaccines are still in various phases of development. Vero cells have been used for the development of a wide variety of vaccines including influenza vaccines. Pandemic and avian influenza vaccines derived from Vero cells have been shown to be well tolerated and immunogenic in animal and Phase I-II clinical studies. A Phase III randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of a trivalent influenza vaccine produced in Vero-cell culture was conducted in 7250 adults aged 18-49 years. Overall protective efficacy for antigenically matched influenza vaccine was 78.5%. The vaccine was well tolerated with no treatment-related serious adverse events and compared favorably with egg-derived vaccines from previous trials. Vero-cell-derived influenza vaccines have the potential to be an important parts of the influenza vaccine strategy, especially if an avian-derived strain becomes predominant or the demand outstrips the capacity of egg-based production systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Candice Yuen-Yue Chan
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, 5 Lower Kent Ridge Road, Singapore 119074, Singapore
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Lohr V, Genzel Y, Jordan I, Katinger D, Mahr S, Sandig V, Reichl U. Live attenuated influenza viruses produced in a suspension process with avian AGE1.CR.pIX cells. BMC Biotechnol 2012; 12:79. [PMID: 23110398 PMCID: PMC3505166 DOI: 10.1186/1472-6750-12-79] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2012] [Accepted: 10/15/2012] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Current influenza vaccines are trivalent or quadrivalent inactivated split or subunit vaccines administered intramuscularly, or live attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIV) adapted to replicate at temperatures below body temperature and administered intranasally. Both vaccines are considered safe and efficient, but due to differences in specific properties may complement each other to ensure reliable vaccine coverage. By now, licensed LAIV are produced in embryonated chicken eggs. In the near future influenza vaccines for human use will also be available from adherent MDCK or Vero cell cultures, but a scalable suspension process may facilitate production and supply with vaccines. RESULTS We evaluated the production of cold-adapted human influenza virus strains in the duck suspension cell line AGE1.CR.pIX using a chemically-defined medium. One cold-adapted A (H1N1) and one cold-adapted B virus strain was tested, as well as the reference strain A/PR/8/34 (H1N1). It is shown that a medium exchange is not required for infection and that maximum virus titers are obtained for 1 × 10⁻⁶ trypsin units per cell. 1 L bioreactor cultivations showed that 4 × 10⁶ cells/mL can be infected without a cell density effect achieving titers of 1 × 10⁸ virions/mL after 24 h. CONCLUSIONS Overall, this study demonstrates that AGE1.CR.pIX cells support replication of LAIV strains in a chemically-defined medium using a simple process without medium exchanges. Moreover, the process is fast with peak titers obtained 24 h post infection and easily scalable to industrial volumes as neither microcarriers nor medium replacements are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Verena Lohr
- Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical Systems, Sandtorstr. 1, 39106, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Yvonne Genzel
- Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical Systems, Sandtorstr. 1, 39106, Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Ingo Jordan
- ProBioGen AG, Goethestr. 54, 13086, Berlin, Germany
| | - Dietmar Katinger
- Polymun Scientific GmbH, Donaustr. 99, 3400, Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Stefan Mahr
- Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical Systems, Sandtorstr. 1, 39106, Magdeburg, Germany
- University for Applied Sciences, Robert-Gerwig-Platz 1, 78120, Furtwangen, Germany
| | | | - Udo Reichl
- Max Planck Institute for Dynamics of Complex Technical Systems, Sandtorstr. 1, 39106, Magdeburg, Germany
- Chair of Bioprocess Engineering, Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg, Universitätsplatz 2, 39106, Magdeburg, Germany
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Genzel Y, Behrendt I, Rödig J, Rapp E, Kueppers C, Kochanek S, Schiedner G, Reichl U. CAP, a new human suspension cell line for influenza virus production. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2012; 97:111-22. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-012-4238-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2012] [Revised: 06/08/2012] [Accepted: 06/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Lombardo T, Dotti S, Renzi S, Ferrari M. Susceptibility of different cell lines to Avian and Swine Influenza viruses. J Virol Methods 2012; 185:82-8. [PMID: 22728276 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2012.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2011] [Revised: 06/01/2012] [Accepted: 06/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Influenza outbreaks are widespread in swine and avian populations. Disease control is jeopardized by the extreme antigenic variability of virus strains. Primary isolation of Influenza virus is performed using embryonated chicken eggs (ECE), but alternatives to ECE are badly needed. Although various cultured cells have been used for propagating Influenza A viruses, few types of cells can efficiently support virus replication. One of the most commonly cell lines used in order to isolate Influenza A virus, is represented by the Madin Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cell line, but cells derived from primary swine organs (kidney, testicle, lung and trachea) can also be employed. The aim of this study was the evaluation of NSK, MDCK, UMNSAH/DF1 cell lines suitability, compared to ECE for isolation and propagation of Avian and Swine virus subtypes. The results indicated both NSK and MDCK could provide an appropriate substrate for cultivating either Avian (AIV) or Swine (SIV) Influenza virus strains, especially for high pathogenicity Avian Influenza ones. Furthermore, NSK appeared more susceptible than MDCK cells for primary isolation of AIV. In contrast, UMNSAH/DF1 cell line seemed to be less permissive to support Avian virus growth. Furthermore, no SIV replication was detected except for one subtype. Additionally, the results of this study indicated that not all virus strains seemed to adapt with the same efficiency to the different cell lines. On the contrary, chicken embryos were shown to be the most suitable biological system for AIV isolation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tina Lombardo
- Cell Culture Centre, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, Via Bianchi 9, 25124 Brescia, Italy.
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Josefsberg JO, Buckland B. Vaccine process technology. Biotechnol Bioeng 2012; 109:1443-60. [DOI: 10.1002/bit.24493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2011] [Revised: 02/24/2012] [Accepted: 02/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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Ng SK. Current cell-based influenza vaccine production technology as pandemic contingency. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2012; 8:267-71. [PMID: 22426381 DOI: 10.4161/hv.18336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Say Kong Ng
- Bioprocessing Technology Institute; Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR); Singapore.
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Aggarwal K, Jing F, Maranga L, Liu J. Bioprocess optimization for cell culture based influenza vaccine production. Vaccine 2011; 29:3320-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.01.081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2010] [Revised: 01/24/2011] [Accepted: 01/25/2011] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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