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Korszun-Karbowniczak J, Krysiak ZJ, Saluk J, Niemcewicz M, Zdanowski R. The Progress in Molecular Transport and Therapeutic Development in Human Blood-Brain Barrier Models in Neurological Disorders. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2024; 44:34. [PMID: 38627312 PMCID: PMC11021242 DOI: 10.1007/s10571-024-01473-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2023] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 04/19/2024]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is responsible for maintaining homeostasis within the central nervous system (CNS). Depending on its permeability, certain substances can penetrate the brain, while others are restricted in their passage. Therefore, the knowledge about BBB structure and function is essential for understanding physiological and pathological brain processes. Consequently, the functional models can serve as a key to help reveal this unknown. There are many in vitro models available to study molecular mechanisms that occur in the barrier. Brain endothelial cells grown in culture are commonly used to modeling the BBB. Current BBB platforms include: monolayer platforms, transwell, matrigel, spheroidal, and tissue-on-chip models. In this paper, the BBB structure, molecular characteristic, as well as its dysfunctions as a consequence of aging, neurodegeneration, or under hypoxia and neurotoxic conditions are presented. Furthermore, the current modelling strategies that can be used to study BBB for the purpose of further drugs development that may reach CNS are also described.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Korszun-Karbowniczak
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology and Innovative Therapies, Military Institute of Medicine National Research Institute, 128 Szaserów Street, 04-141, Warsaw, Poland
- BioMedChem Doctoral School of the University of Lodz and Lodz Institutes of the Polish Academy of Sciences, 21/23 Matejki Street, 90-237, Lodz, Poland
| | - Zuzanna Joanna Krysiak
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology and Innovative Therapies, Military Institute of Medicine National Research Institute, 128 Szaserów Street, 04-141, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Joanna Saluk
- Department of General Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Lodz, 68 Narutowicza Street, 90-136, Lodz, Poland
| | - Marcin Niemcewicz
- Biohazard Prevention Centre, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Lodz, 68 Narutowicza Street, 90-136, Lodz, Poland
| | - Robert Zdanowski
- Laboratory of Molecular Oncology and Innovative Therapies, Military Institute of Medicine National Research Institute, 128 Szaserów Street, 04-141, Warsaw, Poland
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Dutta D, Pirolli NH, Levy D, Tsao J, Seecharan N, Wang Z, Xu X, Jia X, Jay SM. Differentiation state and culture conditions impact neural stem/progenitor cell-derived extracellular vesicle bioactivity. Biomater Sci 2023; 11:5474-5489. [PMID: 37367824 PMCID: PMC10529403 DOI: 10.1039/d3bm00340j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from neural progenitor/stem cells (NPSCs) have shown promising efficacy in a variety of preclinical models. However, NPSCs lack critical neuroregenerative functionality such as myelinating capacity. Further, culture conditions used in NPSC EV production lack standardization, limiting reproducibility challenging and potentially potency of the overall approach via lack of optimization. Here, we assessed whether oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) and immature oligodendrocytes (iOLs), which are further differentiated than NPSCs and which both give rise to mature myelinating oligodendrocytes, could yield EVs with neurotherapeutic properties comparable or superior to those from NPSCs. We additionally examined the effects of extracellular matrix (ECM) coating materials and the presence or absence of growth factors in cell culture on the ultimate properties of EVs. The data show that OPC EVs and iOL EVs performed similarly to NPSC EVs in cell proliferation and anti-inflammatory assays, but NPSC EVs performed better in a neurite outgrowth assay. Additionally, the presence of nerve growth factor (NGF) in culture was found to maximize NPSC EV bioactivity among the conditions tested. NPSC EVs produced under rationally-selected culture conditions (fibronectin + NGF) enhanced axonal regeneration and muscle reinnervation in a rat nerve crush injury model. These results highlight the need for standardization of culture conditions for neurotherapeutic NPSC EV production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dipankar Dutta
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA.
| | - Nicholas H Pirolli
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA.
| | - Daniel Levy
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA.
| | - Jeffrey Tsao
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA.
| | - Nicholas Seecharan
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA.
| | - Zihui Wang
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Xiang Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Xiaofeng Jia
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
- Department of Orthopaedics, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Steven M Jay
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA.
- Program in Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, USA
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Valerio LSA, Carrick FR, Bedoya L, Sreerama S, Sugaya K. Neural Differentiation of Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells for a Xenogeneic Material-Free 3D Neurological Disease Model Neurulation from Pluripotent Cells Using a Human Hydrogel. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2023; 45:4574-4588. [PMID: 37367039 DOI: 10.3390/cimb45060290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2023] [Revised: 05/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is characterized by synapse and neuronal loss and the accumulation of neurofibrillary tangles and Amyloid β plaques. Despite significant research efforts to understand the late stages of the disease, its etiology remains largely unknown. This is in part because of the imprecise AD models in current use. In addition, little attention has been paid to neural stem cells (NSC), which are the cells responsible for the development and maintenance of brain tissue during an individual's lifespan. Thus, an in vitro 3D human brain tissue model using induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cell-derived neural cells in human physiological conditions may be an excellent alternative to standard models to investigate AD pathology. Following the differentiation process mimicking development, iPS cells can be turned into NSCs and, ultimately, neural cells. During differentiation, the traditionally used xenogeneic products may alter the cells' physiology and prevent accurate disease pathology modeling. Hence, establishing a xenogeneic material-free cell culture and differentiation protocol is essential. This study investigated the differentiation of iPS cells to neural cells using a novel extracellular matrix derived from human platelet lysates (PL Matrix). We compared the stemness properties and differentiation efficacies of iPS cells in a PL matrix against those in a conventional 3D scaffold made of an oncogenic murine-matrix. Using well-defined conditions without xenogeneic material, we successfully expanded and differentiated iPS cells into NSCs via dual-SMAD inhibition, which regulates the BMP and TGF signaling cascades in a manner closer to human conditions. This in vitro, 3D, xenogeneic-free scaffold will enhance the quality of disease modeling for neurodegenerative disease research, and the knowledge produced could be used in developing more effective translational medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Sebastian Alexis Valerio
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32827, USA
- Institute for Scientific Research and Technology Services (INDICASAT), City of Knowledge 0801, Panama
- Department of Biotechnology, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur 522510, India
| | - Frederick Robert Carrick
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32827, USA
- MGH Institute of Health Professions, Boston, MA 02129, USA
- Centre for Mental Health Research in Association, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1TN, UK
- Department of Neurology, Carrick Institute, Cape Canaveral, FL 32920, USA
| | - Lina Bedoya
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32827, USA
| | - Sandeep Sreerama
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32827, USA
| | - Kiminobu Sugaya
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32827, USA
- Institute for Scientific Research and Technology Services (INDICASAT), City of Knowledge 0801, Panama
- Department of Biotechnology, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur 522510, India
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Towards Clinical Translation of In Situ Cartilage Engineering Strategies: Optimizing the Critical Facets of a Cell-Laden Hydrogel Therapy. Tissue Eng Regen Med 2022; 20:25-47. [PMID: 36244053 PMCID: PMC9852400 DOI: 10.1007/s13770-022-00487-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Articular cartilage repair using implantable photocrosslinkable hydrogels laden with chondrogenic cells, represents a promising in situ cartilage engineering approach for surgical treatment. The development of a surgical procedure requires a minimal viable product optimized for the clinical scenario. In our previous work we demonstrated how gelatin based photocrosslinkable hydrogels in combination with infrapatellar derived stem cells allow the production of neocartilage in vitro. In this study, we aim to optimize the critical facets of the in situ cartilage engineering therapy: the cell source, the cell isolation methodology, the cell expansion protocol, the cell number, and the delivery approach. METHODS We evaluated the impact of the critical facets of the cell-laden hydrogel therapy in vitro to define an optimized protocol that was then used in a rabbit model of cartilage repair. We performed cells counting and immunophenotype analyses, chondrogenic potential evaluation via immunostaining and gene expression, extrusion test analysis of the photocrosslinkable hydrogel, and clinical assessment of cartilage repair using macroscopic and microscopic scores. RESULTS We identified the adipose derived stem cells as the most chondrogenic cells source within the knee joint. We then devised a minimally manipulated stem cell isolation procedure that allows a chondrogenic population to be obtained in only 85 minutes. We found that cell expansion prior to chondrogenesis can be reduced to 5 days after the isolation procedure. We characterized that at least 5 million of cells/ml is needed in the photocrosslinkable hydrogel to successfully trigger the production of neocartilage. The maximum repairable defect was calculated based on the correlation between the number of cells retrievable with the rapid isolation followed by 5-day non-passaged expansion phase, and the minimum chondrogenic concentration in photocrosslinkable hydrogel. We next optimized the delivery parameters of the cell-laden hydrogel therapy. Finally, using the optimized procedure for in situ tissue engineering, we scored superior cartilage repair when compared to the gold standard microfracture approach. CONCLUSION This study demonstrates the possibility to repair a critical size articular cartilage defect by means of a surgical streamlined procedure with optimized conditions.
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Goel I, Noiri M, Yamauchi Y, Kato K, Chung UI, Teramura Y. Enhancement of intercellular interaction between iPSC-derived neural progenitor cells and activated endothelial cells using cell surface modification with functional oligopeptides. Biomater Sci 2022; 10:925-938. [PMID: 35014994 DOI: 10.1039/d1bm01503f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Cell-based therapy has been used to treat stroke related disorders, which have no treatment options available 4.5 hours after onset. Although the administration of tissue plasminogen activator and mechanical thrombectomy are potent treatments, their clinical implementation is limited within the available time. Here, we aimed to use induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neural progenitor cells (NPCs) for stroke treatment with higher delivery efficiency in stroke areas, which will improve the therapeutic effect. E-selectin binding oligopeptide (Esbp) was conjugated with poly(ethylene glycol)-conjugated-lipid (Esbp-PEG-lipid) with different molecular weights of PEG (5 and 40 kDa) for cell surface modification. Then, we optimized the cell surface modification of NPCs by studying cell-binding ability onto the model surfaces of stroke areas, such as recombinant E-selectin-immobilized surfaces and TNF-α activated endothelium. As a result, the cell surface modification of NPCs with Esbp-PEG-lipid was found to induce specific intercellular interactions with the activated endothelium through the binding of Esbp with E-selectin. Additionally, the shorter PEG spacer was suitable for intercellular interactions. Thus, our technique shows potential for use in cell therapy with enhanced cell accumulation in infarct areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isha Goel
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
| | - Makoto Noiri
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
| | - Yuka Yamauchi
- Department of Biomaterials, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, 1-2-3 Kasumi, Minami-ku, Hiroshima, 734-8553, Japan.,Department of Orthodontics, Division of Oral Health and Development, Hiroshima University Hospital, 1-2-3 Kasumi, Minami-ku, Hiroshima, 734-8551, Japan
| | - Koichi Kato
- Department of Biomaterials, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, 1-2-3 Kasumi, Minami-ku, Hiroshima, 734-8553, Japan
| | - Ung-Il Chung
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
| | - Yuji Teramura
- Cellular and Molecular Biotechnology Research Institute (CMB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba Central fifth, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8565, Japan. .,Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology (IGP), Uppsala University, Dag Hammarskjölds väg 20, SE-751 85, Uppsala, Sweden
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Yamauchi Y, Hirata I, Tanimoto K, Kato K. Epidermal growth factor‐immobilized surfaces for the selective expansion of neural progenitor cells derived from induced pluripotent stem cells. Biotechnol Bioeng 2020; 117:2741-2748. [DOI: 10.1002/bit.27445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuka Yamauchi
- Department of Biomaterials, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health SciencesHiroshima University Hiroshima Japan
- Department of Orthodontics and Craniofacial Developmental Biology, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health SciencesHiroshima University Hiroshima Japan
| | - Isao Hirata
- Department of Biomaterials, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health SciencesHiroshima University Hiroshima Japan
| | - Kotaro Tanimoto
- Department of Orthodontics and Craniofacial Developmental Biology, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health SciencesHiroshima University Hiroshima Japan
| | - Koichi Kato
- Department of Biomaterials, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health SciencesHiroshima University Hiroshima Japan
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Liu D, Pavathuparambil Abdul Manaph N, Al-Hawwas M, Bobrovskaya L, Xiong LL, Zhou XF. Coating Materials for Neural Stem/Progenitor Cell Culture and Differentiation. Stem Cells Dev 2020; 29:463-474. [PMID: 32106778 DOI: 10.1089/scd.2019.0288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) have a potential to treat various neurological diseases, such as Parkinson's Disease, Alzheimer's Disease, and Spinal Cord Injury. However, the limitation of NSPC sources and the difficulty to maintain their stemness or to differentiate them into specific therapeutic cells are the main hurdles for clinical research and application. Thus, for obtaining a therapeutically relevant number of NSPCs in vitro, it is important to understand factors regulating their behaviors and to establish a protocol for stable NSPC proliferation and differentiation. Coating materials for cell culture, such as Matrigel, laminin, collagen, and other coating materials, can significantly affect NSPC characteristics. This article provides a review of coating materials for NSPC culturing in both two dimensions and three dimensions, and their functions in NSPC proliferation and differentiation, and presents a useful guide to select coating materials for researchers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donghui Liu
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | | | - Mohammed Al-Hawwas
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Larisa Bobrovskaya
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Liu-Lin Xiong
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
| | - Xin-Fu Zhou
- School of Pharmacy and Medical Sciences, University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
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Baumgartner W, Otto L, Hess SC, Stark WJ, Märsmann S, Bürgisser GM, Calcagni M, Cinelli P, Buschmann J. Cartilage/bone interface fabricated under perfusion: Spatially organized commitment of adipose‐derived stem cells without medium supplementation. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 2018; 107:1833-1843. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.34276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2018] [Revised: 09/27/2018] [Accepted: 10/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Walter Baumgartner
- Division of Plastic and Hand SurgeryUniversity Hospital Zürich ZKF, Zürich Switzerland
| | - Lukas Otto
- Division of Plastic and Hand SurgeryUniversity Hospital Zürich ZKF, Zürich Switzerland
| | - Samuel C. Hess
- Institute for Chemical‐ and BioengineeringDepartment of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences ETH Zürich, Zürich Switzerland
| | - Wendelin J. Stark
- Institute for Chemical‐ and BioengineeringDepartment of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences ETH Zürich, Zürich Switzerland
| | - Sonja Märsmann
- Division of Plastic and Hand SurgeryUniversity Hospital Zürich ZKF, Zürich Switzerland
- Division of Trauma SurgeryUniversity Hospital Zürich ZKF, Zürich Switzerland
| | | | - Maurizio Calcagni
- Division of Plastic and Hand SurgeryUniversity Hospital Zürich ZKF, Zürich Switzerland
| | - Paolo Cinelli
- Division of Trauma SurgeryUniversity Hospital Zürich ZKF, Zürich Switzerland
| | - Johanna Buschmann
- Division of Plastic and Hand SurgeryUniversity Hospital Zürich ZKF, Zürich Switzerland
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Sun Y, Wang T, Toh W, Pei M. The role of laminins in cartilaginous tissues: from development to regeneration. Eur Cell Mater 2017; 34:40-54. [PMID: 28731483 PMCID: PMC7315463 DOI: 10.22203/ecm.v034a03] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
As a key molecule of the extracellular matrix, laminin provides a delicate microenvironment for cell functions. Recent findings suggest that laminins expressed by cartilage-forming cells (chondrocytes, progenitor cells and stem cells) could promote chondrogenesis. However, few papers outline the effect of laminins on providing a favorable matrix microenvironment for cartilage regeneration. In this review, we delineated the expression of laminins in hyaline cartilage, fibrocartilage and cartilage-like tissue (nucleus pulposus) throughout several developmental stages. We also examined the effect of laminins on the biological activities of chondrocytes, including adhesion, migration and survival. Furthermore, we scrutinized the potential influence of various laminin isoforms on cartilage-forming cells' proliferation and chondrogenic differentiation. With this information, we hope to facilitate the understanding of the spatial and temporal interactions between cartilage-forming cells and laminin microenvironment to eventually advance cell-based cartilage engineering and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y. Sun
- Stem Cell and Tissue Engineering Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedics, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA,Department of Orthopaedics, Orthopaedics Institute, Subei People’s Hospital of Jiangsu Province, Yangzhou, Jiangsu, 225001, China
| | - T.L. Wang
- Stem Cell and Tissue Engineering Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedics, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - W.S. Toh
- Faculty of Dentistry, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - M. Pei
- Stem Cell and Tissue Engineering Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedics, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA,Exercise Physiology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA,Mary Babb Randolph Cancer Center, Robert C. Byrd Health Sciences Center, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA,Corresponding author: Ming Pei MD, PhD, Stem Cell and Tissue Engineering Laboratory, Department of Orthopaedics, West Virginia University, PO Box 9196, One Medical Center Drive, Morgantown, WV 26506-9196, USA, Telephone: 304-293-1072; Fax: 304-293-7070;
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Ottoboni L, Merlini A, Martino G. Neural Stem Cell Plasticity: Advantages in Therapy for the Injured Central Nervous System. Front Cell Dev Biol 2017; 5:52. [PMID: 28553634 PMCID: PMC5427132 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2017.00052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 04/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The physiological and pathological properties of the neural germinal stem cell niche have been well-studied in the past 30 years, mainly in animals and within given limits in humans, and knowledge is available for the cyto-architectonic structure, the cellular components, the timing of development and the energetic maintenance of the niche, as well as for the therapeutic potential and the cross talk between neural and immune cells. In recent years we have gained detailed understanding of the potentiality of neural stem cells (NSCs), although we are only beginning to understand their molecular, metabolic, and epigenetic profile in physiopathology and, further, more can be invested to measure quantitatively the activity of those cells, to model in vitro their therapeutic responses or to predict interactions in silico. Information in this direction has been put forward for other organs but is still limited in the complex and very less accessible context of the brain. A comprehensive understanding of the behavior of endogenous NSCs will help to tune or model them toward a desired response in order to treat complex neurodegenerative diseases. NSCs have the ability to modulate multiple cellular functions and exploiting their plasticity might make them into potent and versatile cellular drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Ottoboni
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Division of Neuroscience, Institute of Experimental Neurology, San Raffaele Scientific InstituteMilan, Italy
| | - Arianna Merlini
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Division of Neuroscience, Institute of Experimental Neurology, San Raffaele Scientific InstituteMilan, Italy
| | - Gianvito Martino
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Division of Neuroscience, Institute of Experimental Neurology, San Raffaele Scientific InstituteMilan, Italy
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