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Miao Z, De Buck J. Discriminating bovine mastitis pathogens by combining loop-mediated isothermal amplification and amplicon-binding split trehalase assay. Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1389184. [PMID: 38887539 PMCID: PMC11180830 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1389184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Bovine mastitis is predominantly caused by intramammary infections with various Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, requiring accurate pathogen identification for effective treatment and antimicrobial resistance prevention. Here, a novel diagnostic method was developed to detect mastitis pathogens in milk samples by combining loop-mediated isothermal amplification with a split enzyme biosensor whereby trehalase fragments were fused with a DNA-binding protein, SpoIIID. Three primer sets, LAMPstaph, LAMPstrep, and LAMPneg, harboring SpoIIID recognition sequences targeted Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, and Gram-negative pathogens, respectively. Limits of detection were determined for DNA extracted from bacterial culture and bacteria-spiked milk. The combined method detected as low as 2, 24, and 10 copies of genomic DNA of staphylococci, streptococci and Escherichia coli and 11 CFU/ml for milk spiked with Escherichia coli. Higher detection limits were observed for Gram-positive bacteria in spiked milk. When testing genomic DNA of 10 mastitis isolates at concentrations of 106 and 103 copies per reaction, no cross-reactivity was detected for LAMPstaph nor LAMPstrep, whereas the LAMPneg assay cross-reacted only with Corynebacterium sp. at the highest concentration. This combined method demonstrated the potential to distinguish mastitis pathogenic Gram types for a rapid decision of antimicrobial treatment without culturing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jeroen De Buck
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
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Shrestha P, Karmacharya J, Han SR, Lee JH, Oh TJ. Elucidation of bacterial trehalose-degrading trehalase and trehalose phosphorylase: physiological significance and its potential applications. Glycobiology 2024; 34:cwad084. [PMID: 37847605 DOI: 10.1093/glycob/cwad084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2023] [Revised: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacteria possess diverse metabolic and genetic processes, resulting in the inability of certain bacteria to degrade trehalose. However, some bacteria do have the capability to degrade trehalose, utilizing it as a carbon source, and for defense against environmental stress. Trehalose, a disaccharide, serves as a carbon source for many bacteria, including some that are vital for pathogens. The degradation of trehalose is carried out by enzymes like trehalase (EC 3.2.1.28) and trehalose phosphorylase (EC 2.4.1.64/2.4.1.231), which are classified under the glycoside hydrolase families GH37, GH15, and GH65. Numerous studies and reports have explored the physiological functions, recombinant expression, enzymatic characteristics, and potential applications of these enzymes. However, further research is still being conducted to understand their roles in bacteria. This review aims to provide a comprehensive summary of the current understanding of trehalose degradation pathways in various bacteria, focusing on three key areas: (i) identifying different trehalose-degrading enzymes in Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, (ii) elucidating the mechanisms employed by trehalose-degrading enzymes belonging to the glycoside hydrolases GH37, GH15, and GH65, and (iii) discussing the potential applications of these enzymes in different sectors. Notably, this review emphasizes the bacterial trehalose-degrading enzymes, specifically trehalases (GH37, GH15, and GH65) and trehalose phosphorylases (GH65), in both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, an aspect that has not been highlighted before.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prasansah Shrestha
- Department of Life Sciences and Biochemical Engineering, Graduate School, Sun Moon University, 70 Sunmoon-ro 221beon-gil, Tangjeong-myeon, Asan-si, Chungcheongnam-do, 31460, South Korea
| | - Jayram Karmacharya
- Department of Life Sciences and Biochemical Engineering, Graduate School, Sun Moon University, 70 Sunmoon-ro 221beon-gil, Tangjeong-myeon, Asan-si, Chungcheongnam-do, 31460, South Korea
| | - So-Ra Han
- Department of Life Sciences and Biochemical Engineering, Graduate School, Sun Moon University, 70 Sunmoon-ro 221beon-gil, Tangjeong-myeon, Asan-si, Chungcheongnam-do, 31460, South Korea
- Genome-based Bio-IT Convergence Institute, 70 Sunmoon-ro 221beon-gil, Tangjeong-myeon Asan-si, Chungcheongnam-do, 31460, South Korea
| | - Jun Hyuck Lee
- Research Unit of Cryogenic Novel Materials, Korea Polar Research Institute, 26 Songdomirae-ro, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 21990, South Korea
| | - Tae-Jin Oh
- Department of Life Sciences and Biochemical Engineering, Graduate School, Sun Moon University, 70 Sunmoon-ro 221beon-gil, Tangjeong-myeon, Asan-si, Chungcheongnam-do, 31460, South Korea
- Genome-based Bio-IT Convergence Institute, 70 Sunmoon-ro 221beon-gil, Tangjeong-myeon Asan-si, Chungcheongnam-do, 31460, South Korea
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering and Biotechnology, Sun Moon University, 70 Sunmoon-ro 221beon-gil, Tangjeong-myeon, Asan-si, Chungcheongnam-do 31460, South Korea
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Zhu B, Qian C, Tang H, Kitaguchi T, Ueda H. Creating a Thermostable β-Glucuronidase Switch for Homogeneous Immunoassay by Disruption of Conserved Salt Bridges at Diagonal Interfaces. Biochemistry 2023; 62:309-317. [PMID: 35849118 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.2c00165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Escherichia coli β-glucuronidase (GUS) has been used as a reporter enzyme in molecular biology and engineered as an enzyme switch for the development of homogeneous biosensors. In this study, we developed a thermostable GUS enzyme switch based on the thermostable GUS mutant TR3337 by disrupting a conserved salt bridge (H514-E523) between the diagonal subunits of its homotetramer. A combinatorial library (240 variants) was screened using a novel high-throughput strategy, which led to the identification of mutant DLW (H514D/M516L/Y517W) as a functional enzyme switch in a caffeine-recognizing immunosensor. Molecular dynamics simulations were performed to predict the topology change around position 514, and a side-chain flip of D514 (repulsion with E523) was observed in the DLW mutant. Up to 1.8-fold of signal-to-background ratio was confirmed when measured at up to 45 °C, thereby highlighting the DLW mutant as a versatile tool for developing thermostable immunosensors for in vitro and in cellulo applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Zhu
- Laboratory for Chemistry and Life Science, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Midori-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 226-8503, Japan
| | - Cheng Qian
- Graduate School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Midori-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 226-8503, Japan
| | - Haoxuan Tang
- Graduate School of Life Science and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Midori-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 226-8503, Japan
| | - Tetsuya Kitaguchi
- Laboratory for Chemistry and Life Science, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Midori-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 226-8503, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Ueda
- Laboratory for Chemistry and Life Science, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Midori-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 226-8503, Japan
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Fu Y, Colazo MG, De Buck J. Development of a blood calcium test for hypocalcemia diagnosis in dairy cows. Res Vet Sci 2022; 147:60-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2022.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2021] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Mukherjee S, De Buck J. Autotransporter-based surface expression and complementation of split TreA fragments utilized for the detection of antibodies against bovine leukemia virus. J Immunol Methods 2021; 495:113084. [PMID: 34118226 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2021.113084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Bovine Leukemia Virus (BLV) is an oncogenic virus which is the etiological agent of a neoplastic disease in infected cattle called enzootic bovine leukemia (EBL). The most common and sensitive diagnostic methods for EBL like enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is time-consuming and requires manual handling which makes it unsuitable as an on-farm diagnostic test. Hence, there is a need for an alternative test with rapid detection and reduced manual labour. We have previously reported the use of E. coli periplasmic trehalase (TreA) in a split enzyme sensor diagnostic technology to detect immunoglobulins and antigen-specific antibodies. In the current study, a more sensitive detection was attempted by bacterial surface display of split TreA fragment by fusion with the autotransporter AIDA-I. The split TreA fragments fused to antigens require antigen-specific antibodies for complementation and to trigger trehalase activity. This surface complementation strategy was used to detect anti-BLV antibodies in clinical serum by incorporating the antigenic BLV capsid protein in the fusion proteins. To validate this assay, a panel of serum samples obtained from BLV positive and negative cattle were tested in comparison with ELISA results. Evaluation of this panel resulted in positive detection of all true positive samples. We further demonstrated that this assay can be enhanced by pre-adsorption of clinical serum samples using E. coli cells to increase the specificity and help reduce nonspecific binding. In conclusion, the p24 antigen specific BLV assay is a potential tool for simple and rapid diagnosis of BLV infection, which is compatible with both lab-based and a more user friendly on-farm format.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Mukherjee
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Jeroen De Buck
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3330 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, AB T2N 4N1, Canada.
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Yudenko A, Smolentseva A, Maslov I, Semenov O, Goncharov IM, Nazarenko VV, Maliar NL, Borshchevskiy V, Gordeliy V, Remeeva A, Gushchin I. Rational Design of a Split Flavin-Based Fluorescent Reporter. ACS Synth Biol 2021; 10:72-83. [PMID: 33325704 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.0c00454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Protein-fragment complementation assays are used ubiquitously for probing protein-protein interactions. Most commonly, the reporter protein is split in two parts, which are then fused to the proteins of interest and can reassemble and provide a readout if the proteins of interest interact with each other. The currently known split fluorescent proteins either can be used only in aerobic conditions and assemble irreversibly, or require addition of exogenous chromophores, which complicates the design of experiments. In recent years, light-oxygen-voltage (LOV) domains of several photoreceptor proteins have been developed into flavin-based fluorescent proteins (FbFPs) that, under some circumstances, can outperform commonly used fluorescent proteins such as GFP. Here, we show that CagFbFP, a small thermostable FbFP based on a LOV domain-containing protein from Chloroflexus aggregans, can serve as a split fluorescent reporter. We use the available genetic and structural information to identify three loops between the conserved secondary structure elements, Aβ-Bβ, Eα-Fα, and Hβ-Iβ, that tolerate insertion of flexible poly-Gly/Ser segments and eventually splitting. We demonstrate that the designed split pairs, when fused to interacting proteins, are fluorescent in vivo in E. coli and human cells and have low background fluorescence. Our results enable probing protein-protein interactions in anaerobic conditions without using exogenous fluorophores and provide a basis for further development of LOV and PAS (Per-Arnt-Sim) domain-based fluorescent reporters and optogenetic tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Yudenko
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141701, Russia
| | - Anastasia Smolentseva
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141701, Russia
| | - Ivan Maslov
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141701, Russia
| | - Oleg Semenov
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141701, Russia
| | - Ivan M. Goncharov
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141701, Russia
| | - Vera V. Nazarenko
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141701, Russia
| | - Nina L. Maliar
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141701, Russia
| | - Valentin Borshchevskiy
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141701, Russia
| | - Valentin Gordeliy
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141701, Russia
- Institut de Biologie Structurale J.-P. Ebel, Université Grenoble Alpes-CEA-CNRS, 38044 Grenoble, France
- Institute of Biological Information Processing (IBI-7: Structural Biochemistry), Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich, Germany
- JuStruct: Jülich Center for Structural Biology, Forschungszentrum Jülich, 52425 Jülich, Germany
| | - Alina Remeeva
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141701, Russia
| | - Ivan Gushchin
- Research Center for Molecular Mechanisms of Aging and Age-Related Diseases, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Dolgoprudny 141701, Russia
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Abstract
Biological signaling pathways are underpinned by protein switches that sense and respond to molecular inputs. Inspired by nature, engineered protein switches have been designed to directly transduce analyte binding into a quantitative signal in a simple, wash-free, homogeneous assay format. As such, they offer great potential to underpin point-of-need diagnostics that are needed across broad sectors to improve access, costs, and speed compared to laboratory assays. Despite this, protein switch assays are not yet in routine diagnostic use, and a number of barriers to uptake must be overcome to realize this potential. Here, we review the opportunities and challenges in engineering protein switches for rapid diagnostic tests. We evaluate how their design, comprising a recognition element, reporter, and switching mechanism, relates to performance and identify areas for improvement to guide further optimization. Recent modular switches that enable new analytes to be targeted without redesign are crucial to ensure robust and efficient development processes. The importance of translational steps toward practical implementation, including integration into a user-friendly device and thorough assay validation, is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hope Adamson
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
| | - Lars J. C. Jeuken
- School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, United Kingdom
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Luo L, De Buck J. Inducing cellular immune responses with a marked Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis strain in dairy calves. Vet Microbiol 2020; 244:108665. [PMID: 32402345 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2020.108665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Revised: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 03/28/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) is the etiological agent of Johne's disease, a chronic granulomatous enteritis with a high global prevalence in dairy cattle. This disease causes significant economic loss in the dairy industry and has been challenging to control, as current diagnostic assays are low in sensitivity and specificity, and previously developed vaccines do not prevent infection and face regulatory concerns due to interference with bovine tuberculosis diagnostics. To remediate this issue, positive and negative immune markers were created in a MAP strain as a step towards a vaccine capable of differentiating infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA). A gene coding for an immunogenic protein (MAP1693c) in the MAP genome was replaced with a library of epitope-tagged immunogenic genes (pepA) via a stable allelic exchange method. These markers were evaluated in a calf infection trial, where Holstein-Friesian dairy calves were inoculated at two weeks of age with either the marked strain or the parent strain, or remained uninfected controls. Cellular immune responses to the markers were measured using an interferon gamma release assay (IGRA). There were no MAP1693c marker-specific differences in cellular immune responses between infection groups. A scrambled version of the HA (human influenza hemagglutinin) epitope, but not the actual HA epitope, induced a significant IFN-γ response in marker-infected calves compared to WT-infected and uninfected groups at 4.5 months post-inoculation. This scrambled HA epitope thus holds potential as a diagnostic tool as part of a DIVA vaccine for Johne's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy Luo
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jeroen De Buck
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
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Drikic M, Olsen S, De Buck J. Detecting total immunoglobulins in diverse animal species with a novel split enzymatic assay. BMC Vet Res 2019; 15:374. [PMID: 31660970 PMCID: PMC6816151 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-019-2126-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Total immunolobulin G concentration is a useful, albeit underutilized, diagnostic parameter for health assessments of non-domestic animal species, due to a lack of functional diagnostic tools. Traditional assays, including enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or radial immunodiffusion, require development of specific reagents (e.g., polyclonal antisera and appropriate protocols) for each animal species, precluding wide and easy adoption in wildlife welfare. As an alternative, bacterial virulence factors able to bind IgGs in antigen-independent manner can be used. To further simplify the diagnostic procedure and increase the number of species recognized by an assay, in this study a recently developed Split Trehalase immunoglobulin assay (STIGA) with bIBPs as a sensing elements was used to detect antibodies in 29 species from 9 orders. Three bacterial immunoglobulin binding proteins (protein G, protein A and protein L) were incorporated into STIGA reagents to increase the number of species recognized. RESULTS IgG concentrations were detected through glucose production and produced signals were categorized in 4 categories, from not active to strong signal. Activation was detected in almost all tested animal species, apart from birds. Incorporation of Protein G, Protein A and Protein L allowed detection of IgGs in 62, 15.5 and 6.9% of species with a strong signal, respectively. Assays combining 2 bacterial immunoglobulin binding proteins as sensing element generally gave poorer performance than assays with the same bacterial immunoglobulin binding proteins fused to both trehalase fragments. CONCLUSIONS STIGA assays have potential to be further developed into an easily adoptable diagnostic test for total amount of IgGs in almost any serum sample, independent of species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marija Drikic
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Steven Olsen
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jeroen De Buck
- Department of Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
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Drikic M, Windeyer C, Olsen S, Fu Y, Doepel L, De Buck J. Determining the IgG concentrations in bovine colostrum and calf sera with a novel enzymatic assay. J Anim Sci Biotechnol 2018; 9:69. [PMID: 30214721 PMCID: PMC6131873 DOI: 10.1186/s40104-018-0287-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Accepted: 08/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Immune protection in newborn calves relies on a combination of the timing, volume and quality of colostrum consumed by the calf after birth. Poor quality colostrum with inadequate immunoglobulin concentration contributes to failed transfer of passive immunity in calves, leading to higher calf morbidity and mortality. Therefore, estimating colostrum quality and ensuring the transfer of passive immunity on farm is of critical importance. Currently, there are no on-farm tools that directly measure immunoglobulin content in colostrum or serum. The aim of this study was to apply a novel molecular assay, split trehalase immunoglobulin G assay (STIGA), to directly estimate immunoglobulin content in dairy and beef colostrum and calf sera, and to examine its potential to be developed as on-farm test. The STIGA is based on a split version of trehalase TreA, an enzyme that converts trehalose into glucose, enabling the use of a common glucometer for signal detection. In a first study, 60 dairy and 64 beef colostrum and 83 dairy and 84 beef calf sera samples were tested with STIGA, and the resulting glucose production was measured and compared with radial immunodiffusion, the standard method for measuring immunoglobulin concentrations. Results Pearson correlation coefficients between the methods were determined and the sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of the test were calculated for different colostrum quality and failed transfer of passive immunity cut-off points. The correlations of the STIGA measured by colorimetric enzymatic reaction compared to radial immunodiffusion for dairy and beef colostrum were 0.72 and 0.73, respectively, whereas the correlations for dairy and beef sera were 0.9 and 0.85, respectively. Next, STIGA was tested in a blinded study with fresh colostrum and serum samples where the correlation coefficient was 0.93 and 0.94, respectively. Furthermore, the performance of STIGA followed by glucometer readings resulted in correlations with radial immunodiffusion of 0.7 and 0.85 for dairy and beef colostrum and 0.94 and 0.83 for dairy and beef calf serum. Conclusions A split TreA assay was validated for measurement of the immunoglobulin content of colostrum and calf sera using both a lab-based format and in a more user-friendly format compatible with on-farm testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Drikic
- Department Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB Canada
| | - C Windeyer
- Department Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB Canada
| | - S Olsen
- Department Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB Canada
| | - Y Fu
- Department Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB Canada
| | - L Doepel
- Department Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB Canada
| | - J De Buck
- Department Production Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB Canada
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