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Abstract
Protein semisynthesis-defined herein as the assembly of a protein from a combination of synthetic and recombinant fragments-is a burgeoning field of chemical biology that has impacted many areas in the life sciences. In this review, we provide a comprehensive survey of this area. We begin by discussing the various chemical and enzymatic methods now available for the manufacture of custom proteins containing noncoded elements. This section begins with a discussion of methods that are more chemical in origin and ends with those that employ biocatalysts. We also illustrate the commonalities that exist between these seemingly disparate methods and show how this is allowing for the development of integrated chemoenzymatic methods. This methodology discussion provides the technical foundation for the second part of the review where we cover the great many biological problems that have now been addressed using these tools. Finally, we end the piece with a short discussion on the frontiers of the field and the opportunities available for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tom W. Muir
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Frick Laboratory, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
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2
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Sakamoto S, Terauchi M, Araki Y, Wada T. Design and semisynthesis of photoactivable split-GFP by incorporation of photocleavable functionality. Biopolymers 2013; 100:773-9. [PMID: 23893715 DOI: 10.1002/bip.22304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2013] [Revised: 04/13/2013] [Accepted: 05/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The design of proteins whose structure and function can be manipulated by the external stimuli has been of great interest in the field of protein engineering. In particular, caged proteins which can be activated by photo-irradiation become powerful tools for investigating a variety of biological events. Although protein caging is straightforward to render light-responsive protein functions, this approach mostly have difficulties based on the preparation of caged proteins in which amino acid residues required for biological activities must be specifically modified with synthetic photolabile groups. The synthetic peptide-based strategy for photoactivation of protein function may expand the versatility of protein caging approaches since the photolabile protecting group can be easily introduced into the peptide by means of standard solid-phase methods in a site-specific manner. In this study, we designed a new photoactivable green fluorescent protein (GFP), in which a relatively short C-terminal fragment (residues 214-230) of a dissected protein was modified with 7-diethylamino-4-hydroxymethylcoumarin (DECM) as a photoresponsive-protecting group. The introduced DECM unit completely inhibited the reconstitution with the GFP N-terminal fragment (residues 2-214). However, irradiation of visible light (>400 nm) resulted in efficient cleavage of DECM group, leading to acceleration of protein reassembly and concomitant GFP fluorescence recovery. These results demonstrated direct control of protein structure and function by application of the synthetic photocleavable functionality to a fragmented protein. The combined system of fragmented proteins and synthetic photocleavable elements will provide the useful and potentially wide applicable strategy for the regulation of protein structure and function by the light in a temporal and spacial manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seiji Sakamoto
- Institute of Multidisciplinary Research for Advanced Materials, Tohoku University, Katahira 2-1-1, Aoba-ku, Sendai, 980-8577, Japan
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3
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De Rosa L, Russomanno A, Romanelli A, D’Andrea LD. Semi-synthesis of labeled proteins for spectroscopic applications. Molecules 2013; 18:440-65. [PMID: 23282535 PMCID: PMC6269674 DOI: 10.3390/molecules18010440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2012] [Revised: 12/21/2012] [Accepted: 12/24/2012] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the introduction of SPPS by Merrifield in the 60s, peptide chemists have considered the possibility of preparing large proteins. The introduction of native chemical ligation in the 90s and then of expressed protein ligation have opened the way to the preparation of synthetic proteins without size limitations. This review focuses on semi-synthetic strategies useful to prepare proteins decorated with spectroscopic probes, like fluorescent labels and stable isotopes, and their biophysical applications. We show that expressed protein ligation, combining the advantages of organic chemistry with the easy and size limitless recombinant protein expression, is an excellent strategy for the chemical synthesis of labeled proteins, enabling a single protein to be functionalized at one or even more distinct positions with different probes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia De Rosa
- Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini, CNR, Via Mezzocannone 16, Napoli 80134, Italy; E-Mails: (L.D.R.); (A.R.)
| | - Anna Russomanno
- Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini, CNR, Via Mezzocannone 16, Napoli 80134, Italy; E-Mails: (L.D.R.); (A.R.)
| | - Alessandra Romanelli
- Dipartimento delle Scienze Biologiche, Università di Napoli “Federico II”, Via Mezzocannone 16, Napoli 80134, Italy; E-Mail:
| | - Luca Domenico D’Andrea
- Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini, CNR, Via Mezzocannone 16, Napoli 80134, Italy; E-Mails: (L.D.R.); (A.R.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +39-081-253-6679; Fax: +39-081-253-4574
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4
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Li YM, Yang MY, Huang YC, Li YT, Chen PR, Liu L. Ligation of expressed protein α-hydrazides via genetic incorporation of an α-hydroxy acid. ACS Chem Biol 2012; 7:1015-22. [PMID: 22424086 DOI: 10.1021/cb300020s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Expressed protein ligation bridges the gap between synthetic peptides and recombinant proteins and thereby significantly increases the size and complexity of chemically synthesized proteins. Although the intein-based expressed protein ligation method has been extensively used in this regard, the development of new expressed protein ligation methods may improve the flexibility and power of protein semisynthesis. In this study a new alternative version of expressed protein ligation is developed by combining the recently developed technologies of hydrazide-based peptide ligation and genetic code expansion. Compared to the previous intein-based expressed protein ligation method, the new method does not require the use of protein splicing technology and generates recombinant protein α-hydrazides as ligation intermediates that are more chemically stable than protein α-thioesters. Furthermore, the use of an evolved mutant pyrrolysyl-tRNA synthetase(PylRS), ACPK-RS, from M. barkeri shows an improved performance for the expression of recombinant protein backbone oxoesters. By using HdeA as a model protein we demonstrate that the hydrazide-based method can be used to synthesize proteins with correctly folded structures and full biological activity. Because the PylRS-tRNACUAPyl system is compatible with both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells,the strategy presented here may be readily expanded to manipulate proteins produced in mammalian cells. The new hydrazide-based method may also supplement the intein-based expressed protein ligation method by allowing for a more flexible selection of ligation site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Ming Li
- Tsinghua-Peking
Center for Life Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Mai-Yun Yang
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Synthetic and Functional Biomolecules Center, Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, and Department of Chemical Biology, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Yi-Chao Huang
- Tsinghua-Peking
Center for Life Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yi-Tong Li
- Tsinghua-Peking
Center for Life Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Peng R. Chen
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Synthetic and Functional Biomolecules Center, Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences, and Department of Chemical Biology, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Lei Liu
- Tsinghua-Peking
Center for Life Sciences, Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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Kamei A, Hauser PS, Beckstead JA, Weers PMM, Ryan RO. Expressed protein ligation-mediated template protein extension. Protein Expr Purif 2012; 83:113-6. [PMID: 22487214 DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2012.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2012] [Revised: 03/23/2012] [Accepted: 03/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Expressed protein ligation (EPL) was performed to investigate sequence requirements for a variant human apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) to adopt a folded structure. A C-terminal truncated apoA-I, corresponding to residues 1-172, was expressed and isolated from Escherichia coli. Compared to full length apoA-I (243 amino acids), apoA-I(1-172) displayed less α-helix secondary structure and lower stability in solution. To determine if extension of this polypeptide would confer secondary structure content and/or stability, 20 residues were added to the C-terminus of apoA-I(1-172) by EPL, creating apoA-I(Milano)(1-192). The EPL product displayed biophysical properties similar to full-length apoA-I(Milano). The results provide a general protein engineering strategy to modify the length of a recombinant template polypeptide using synthetic peptides as well as a convenient, cost effective way to investigate the structure/function relations in apolipoprotein fragments or domains of different size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayako Kamei
- Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, 5700 Martin Luther King Jr Way, Oakland, CA 94609, United States
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6
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Biological applications of protein splicing. Cell 2010; 143:191-200. [PMID: 20946979 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2010.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2010] [Revised: 09/03/2010] [Accepted: 09/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Protein splicing is a naturally occurring process in which a protein editor, called an intein, performs a molecular disappearing act by cutting itself out of a host protein in a traceless manner. In the two decades since its discovery, protein splicing has been harnessed for the development of several protein-engineering methods. Collectively, these technologies help bridge the fields of chemistry and biology, allowing hitherto impossible manipulations of protein covalent structure. These tools and their application are the subject of this Primer.
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Arndt HD, Hackenberger C, Schwarzer D. Werkzeug für die Chemische Biologie. Semisynthese. CHEM UNSERER ZEIT 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/ciuz.201000530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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8
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Lahiri S, Seidel R, Engelhard M, Becker CFW. Photocontrol of STAT6 dimerization and translocation. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2010; 6:2423-9. [DOI: 10.1039/c0mb00019a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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9
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Abstract
The explosion of scientific interest in protein kinase-mediated signaling networks has led to the infusion of new chemical methods and their applications related to the analysis of phosphorylation pathways. We highlight some of these chemical biology approaches across three areas. First, we discuss the development of chemical tools to modulate the activity of protein kinases to explore kinase mechanisms and their contributions to phosphorylation events and cellular processes. Second, we describe chemical techniques developed in the past few years to dissect the structural and functional effects of phosphate modifications at specific sites in proteins. Third, we cover newly developed molecular imaging approaches to elucidate the spatiotemporal aspects of phosphorylation cascades in live cells. Exciting advances in our understanding of protein phosphorylation have been obtained with these chemical biology approaches, but continuing opportunities for technological innovation remain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Katherine Tarrant
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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10
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Lee HM, Larson DR, Lawrence DS. Illuminating the chemistry of life: design, synthesis, and applications of "caged" and related photoresponsive compounds. ACS Chem Biol 2009; 4:409-27. [PMID: 19298086 DOI: 10.1021/cb900036s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 369] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Biological systems are characterized by a level of spatial and temporal organization that often lies beyond the grasp of present day methods. Light-modulated bioreagents, including analogs of low molecular weight compounds, peptides, proteins, and nucleic acids, represent a compelling strategy to probe, perturb, or sample biological phenomena with the requisite control to address many of these organizational complexities. Although this technology has created considerable excitement in the chemical community, its application to biological questions has been relatively limited. We describe the challenges associated with the design, synthesis, and use of light-responsive bioreagents; the scope and limitations associated with the instrumentation required for their application; and recent chemical and biological advances in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsien-Ming Lee
- Departments of Chemistry, Medicinal Chemistry & Natural Products, and Pharmacology, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290
| | - Daniel R. Larson
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, The Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, Bronx, New York 10461
| | - David S. Lawrence
- Departments of Chemistry, Medicinal Chemistry & Natural Products, and Pharmacology, The University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290
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Wang Q, Parrish AR, Wang L. Expanding the genetic code for biological studies. CHEMISTRY & BIOLOGY 2009; 16:323-36. [PMID: 19318213 PMCID: PMC2696486 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2009.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2009] [Revised: 02/25/2009] [Accepted: 03/03/2009] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Using an orthogonal tRNA-synthetase pair, unnatural amino acids can be genetically encoded with high efficiency and fidelity, and over 40 unnatural amino acids have been site-specifically incorporated into proteins in Escherichia coli, yeast, or mammalian cells. Novel chemical or physical properties embodied in these amino acids enable new means for tailored manipulation of proteins. This review summarizes the methodology and recent progress in expanding this technology to eukaryotic cells. Applications of genetically encoded unnatural amino acids are highlighted with reports on labeling and modifying proteins, probing protein structure and function, identifying and regulating protein activity, and generating proteins with new properties. Genetic incorporation of unnatural amino acids provides a powerful method for investigating a wide variety of biological processes both in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Wang
- The Jack H. Skirball Center for Chemical Biology & Proteomics, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Angela R. Parrish
- The Jack H. Skirball Center for Chemical Biology & Proteomics, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Lei Wang
- The Jack H. Skirball Center for Chemical Biology & Proteomics, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 N. Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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Abstract
In this review, which is more or less a transcript of my du Vigneaud Award Lecture, I cover the development and application of the protein semisynthesis technique, Expressed Protein Ligation (EPL). EPL allows the assembly of modified proteins from recombinant and synthetic peptide building blocks. The approach has been widely used since its introduction in 1998 and has allowed a number of biochemical problems to be solved through the use of CEdesigner proteins. In this article, the utility of the approach is illustrated through work in my own lab and with an emphasis on the use of EPL to study the role of protein post-translational modifications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom W Muir
- Laboratory of Synthetic Protein Chemistry, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10021, USA.
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13
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Flavell RR, Muir TW. Expressed protein ligation (EPL) in the study of signal transduction, ion conduction, and chromatin biology. Acc Chem Res 2009; 42:107-16. [PMID: 18939858 DOI: 10.1021/ar800129c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Expressed protein ligation (EPL) is a semisynthetic technique in which a recombinant protein thioester, generated by thiolysis of an intein fusion protein, is reacted with a synthetic or recombinant peptide with an N-terminal cysteine to produce a native peptide bond. This method has been used extensively for the incorporation of biophysical probes, unnatural amino acids, and post-translational modifications in proteins. In the 10 years since this technique was developed, the applications of EPL to studying protein structure and function have grown ever more sophisticated. In this Account, we review the use of EPL in selected systems in which substantial mechanistic insights have recently been gained through the use of the semisynthetic protein derivatives. EPL has been used in many studies to unravel the complexity of signaling networks and subcellular trafficking. Herein, we highlight this application to two different systems. First, we describe how phosphorylated or otherwise modified proteins in the TGF-beta signaling network were prepared and how they were applied to understanding the complexities of this pathway, from receptor activation to nuclear import. Second, Rab-GTPases are multiply modified with lipid derivatives, and EPL-based techniques were used to incorporate these modifications, allowing for the elucidation of the biophysical basis of membrane association and dissociation. We also review the use of EPL to understand the biology of two other systems, the potassium channel KcsA and histones. EPL was used to incorporate d-alanine and an amide-to-ester backbone modification in the selectivity filter of the KcsA potassium channel, providing insight into the mechanism of selectivity in ion conduction. In the case of histones, which are among the most heavily post-translationally modified proteins, the modifications play a key role in the regulation of gene transcription and chromatin structure. We describe how native chemical ligation and EPL were used to generate acetylated, phosphorylated, methylated, and ubiquitylated histones and how these modified histones were used to interrogate chromatin biology. Collectively, these studies demonstrate the utility of EPL in protein science. These techniques and concepts are applicable to many other systems, and ongoing advances promise to extend this semisynthetic technique to increasingly complex biological problems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert R. Flavell
- Laboratory of Synthetic Protein Chemistry, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York 10065
| | - Tom W. Muir
- Laboratory of Synthetic Protein Chemistry, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York 10065
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Hauser PS, Raussens V, Yamamoto T, Abdullahi GE, Weers PMM, Sykes BD, Ryan RO. Semisynthesis and segmental isotope labeling of the apoE3 N-terminal domain using expressed protein ligation. J Lipid Res 2008; 50:1548-55. [PMID: 19098282 DOI: 10.1194/jlr.m800554-jlr200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Apolipoprotein E (apoE) is an exchangeable apolipoprotein that functions as a ligand for members of the LDL receptor family, promoting lipoprotein clearance from the circulation. Productive receptor binding requires that apoE adopt an LDL receptor-active conformation through lipid association, and studies have shown that the 22 kDa N-terminal (NT) domain (residues 1-183) of apoE is both necessary and sufficient for receptor interaction. Using intein-mediated expressed protein ligation (EPL), a semisynthetic apoE3 NT has been generated for use in structure-function studies designed to probe the nature of the lipid-associated conformation of the protein. Circular dichroism spectroscopy of EPL-generated apoE3 NT revealed a secondary structure content similar to wild-type apoE3 NT. Likewise, lipid and LDL receptor binding studies revealed that EPL-generated apoE3 NT is functional. Subsequently, EPL was used to construct an apoE3 NT enriched with 15N solely and specifically in residues 112-183. 1H-15N heteronuclear single quantum correlation spectroscopy experiments revealed that the ligation product is correctly folded in solution, adopting a conformation similar to wild-type apoE3-NT. The results indicate that segmental isotope labeling can be used to define the lipid bound conformation of the receptor binding element of apoE as well as molecular details of its interaction with the LDL receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul S Hauser
- Center for Prevention of Obesity, Diabetes, and Cardiovascular Disease, Children's Hospital Oakland Research Institute, Oakland, CA 94609, USA
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Hackenberger C, Schwarzer D. Chemoselektive Ligations- und Modifikationsstrategien für Peptide und Proteine. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2008. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200801313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 204] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Hackenberger C, Schwarzer D. Chemoselective Ligation and Modification Strategies for Peptides and Proteins. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2008; 47:10030-74. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.200801313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 651] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Abstract
This tutorial review outlines the modern ligation methods that enable the efficient total chemical synthesis of enzymes and other protein molecules. Key to this success is the chemoselective reaction of unprotected synthetic peptides ('chemical ligation'). Notably, native chemical ligation enables the reaction of two unprotected peptides in aqueous solution at neutral pH to form a single product in near quantitative yield. Full-length synthetic polypeptides are folded to form the defined tertiary structure of the target protein molecule, which is characterized by mass spectrometry, NMR, and X-ray crystallography, in addition to biochemical and/or biological activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen B H Kent
- Department of Chemistry, Institute for Biophysical Dynamics, Center for Integrative Science, University of Chicago, 929 East 57th Street, Chicago, IL 60637, USA.
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Kawakami T, Cheng H, Hashiro S, Nomura Y, Tsukiji S, Furuta T, Nagamune T. A Caged Phosphopeptide‐Based Approach for Photochemical Activation of Kinases in Living Cells. Chembiochem 2008; 9:1583-6. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200800116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Ziaco B, Pensato S, D’Andrea LD, Benedetti E, Romanelli A. Semisynthesis of Dimeric Proteins by Expressed Protein Ligation. Org Lett 2008; 10:1955-8. [DOI: 10.1021/ol800457g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Ziaco
- Università di Napoli “Federico II”, Dipartimento delle Scienze Biologiche, Facoltà di Scienze Biotecnologiche, via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Napoli, Italy, and Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini, CNR, via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Napoli, Italy
| | - Soccorsa Pensato
- Università di Napoli “Federico II”, Dipartimento delle Scienze Biologiche, Facoltà di Scienze Biotecnologiche, via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Napoli, Italy, and Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini, CNR, via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Napoli, Italy
| | - Luca D. D’Andrea
- Università di Napoli “Federico II”, Dipartimento delle Scienze Biologiche, Facoltà di Scienze Biotecnologiche, via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Napoli, Italy, and Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini, CNR, via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Napoli, Italy
| | - Ettore Benedetti
- Università di Napoli “Federico II”, Dipartimento delle Scienze Biologiche, Facoltà di Scienze Biotecnologiche, via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Napoli, Italy, and Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini, CNR, via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Napoli, Italy
| | - Alessandra Romanelli
- Università di Napoli “Federico II”, Dipartimento delle Scienze Biologiche, Facoltà di Scienze Biotecnologiche, via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Napoli, Italy, and Istituto di Biostrutture e Bioimmagini, CNR, via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Napoli, Italy
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