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WANG H, WANG L, FAN K, PAN G. Tetracycline natural products: discovery, biosynthesis and engineering. Chin J Nat Med 2022; 20:773-794. [DOI: 10.1016/s1875-5364(22)60224-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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2
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Kong L, Deng Z, You D. Chemistry and biosynthesis of bacterial polycyclic xanthone natural products. Nat Prod Rep 2022; 39:2057-2095. [PMID: 36083257 DOI: 10.1039/d2np00046f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Covering: up to the end of 2021Bacterial polycyclic xanthone natural products (BPXNPs) are a growing family of natural xanthones featuring a pentangular architecture with various modifications to the tricyclic xanthone chromophore. Their structural diversities and various activities have fueled biosynthetic and chemical synthetic studies. Moreover, their more potent activities than the clinically used drugs make them potential candidates for the treatment of diseases. Future unraveling of structure activity relationships (SARs) will provide new options for the (bio)-synthesis of drug analogues with higher activities. This review summarizes the isolation, structural elucidation and biological activities and more importantly, the recent strategies for the microbial biosynthesis and chemical synthesis of BPXNPs. Regarding their biosynthesis, we discuss the recent progress in enzymes that synthesize tricyclic xanthone, the protein candidates for structural moieties (methylene dioxygen bridge and nitrogen heterocycle), tailoring enzymes for methylation and halogenation. The chemical synthesis part summarizes the recent methodology for the division synthesis and coupling construction of achiral molecular skeletons. Ultimately, perspectives on the biosynthetic study of BPXNPs are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingxin Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences & Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
| | - Zixin Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences & Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
| | - Delin You
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, School of Life Sciences & Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
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Popin RV, Alvarenga DO, Castelo-Branco R, Fewer DP, Sivonen K. Mining of Cyanobacterial Genomes Indicates Natural Product Biosynthetic Gene Clusters Located in Conjugative Plasmids. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:684565. [PMID: 34803938 PMCID: PMC8600333 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.684565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial natural products are compounds with unique chemical structures and diverse biological activities. Cyanobacteria commonly possess a wide range of biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) to produce natural products. Although natural product BGCs have been found in almost all cyanobacterial genomes, little attention has been given in cyanobacterial research to the partitioning of these biosynthetic pathways in chromosomes and plasmids. Cyanobacterial plasmids are believed to disperse several natural product BGCs, such as toxins, by plasmids through horizontal gene transfer. Therefore, plasmids may confer the ability to produce toxins and may play a role in the evolution of diverse natural product BGCs from cyanobacteria. Here, we performed an analysis of the distribution of natural product BGCs in 185 genomes and mapped the presence of genes involved in the conjugation in plasmids. The 185 analyzed genomes revealed 1817 natural products BGCs. Individual genomes contained 1–42 biosynthetic pathways (mean 8), 95% of which were present in chromosomes and the remaining 5% in plasmids. Of the 424 analyzed cyanobacterial plasmids, 12% contained homologs of genes involved in conjugation and natural product biosynthetic pathways. Among the biosynthetic pathways in plasmids, manual curation identified those to produce aeruginosin, anabaenopeptin, ambiguine, cryptophycin, hassallidin, geosmin, and microcystin. These compounds are known toxins, protease inhibitors, odorous compounds, antimicrobials, and antitumorals. The present study provides in silico evidence using genome mining that plasmids may be involved in the distribution of natural product BGCs in cyanobacteria. Consequently, cyanobacterial plasmids have importance in the context of biotechnology, water management, and public health risk assessment. Future research should explore in vivo conjugation and the end products of natural product BGCs in plasmids via chemical analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Danillo Oliveira Alvarenga
- Department of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Biology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Raquel Castelo-Branco
- Department of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research (CIIMAR), University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - David Peter Fewer
- Department of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kaarina Sivonen
- Department of Microbiology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Lasch C, Gummerlich N, Myronovskyi M, Palusczak A, Zapp J, Luzhetskyy A. Loseolamycins: A Group of New Bioactive Alkylresorcinols Produced after Heterologous Expression of a Type III PKS from Micromonospora endolithica. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25204594. [PMID: 33050154 PMCID: PMC7587189 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25204594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural products are a valuable source of biologically active compounds with potential applications in medicine and agriculture. Unprecedented scaffold diversity of natural products and biocatalysts from their biosynthetic pathways are of fundamental importance. Heterologous expression and refactoring of natural product biosynthetic pathways are generally regarded as a promising approach to discover new secondary metabolites of microbial origin. Here, we present the identification of a new group of alkylresorcinols after transcriptional activation and heterologous expression of the type III polyketide synthase of Micromonospora endolithica. The most abundant compounds loseolamycins A1 and A2 have been purified and their structures were elucidated by NMR. Loseolamycins contain an unusual branched hydroxylated aliphatic chain which is provided by the host metabolism and is incorporated as a starter fatty acid unit. The isolated loseolamycins show activity against gram-positive bacteria and inhibit the growth of the monocot weed Agrostis stolonifera in a germination assay. The biosynthetic pathway leading to the production of loseolamycins is proposed in this paper.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constanze Lasch
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany; (C.L.); (N.G.); (M.M.); (A.P.)
| | - Nils Gummerlich
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany; (C.L.); (N.G.); (M.M.); (A.P.)
| | - Maksym Myronovskyi
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany; (C.L.); (N.G.); (M.M.); (A.P.)
| | - Anja Palusczak
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany; (C.L.); (N.G.); (M.M.); (A.P.)
| | - Josef Zapp
- Pharmaceutical Biology, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany;
| | - Andriy Luzhetskyy
- Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany; (C.L.); (N.G.); (M.M.); (A.P.)
- Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-681-302-70200
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Wang J, Zhang R, Chen X, Sun X, Yan Y, Shen X, Yuan Q. Biosynthesis of aromatic polyketides in microorganisms using type II polyketide synthases. Microb Cell Fact 2020; 19:110. [PMID: 32448179 PMCID: PMC7247197 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-020-01367-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Aromatic polyketides have attractive biological activities and pharmacological properties. Different from other polyketides, aromatic polyketides are characterized by their polycyclic aromatic structure. The biosynthesis of aromatic polyketides is usually accomplished by the type II polyketide synthases (PKSs), which produce highly diverse polyketide chains by sequential condensation of the starter units with extender units, followed by reduction, cyclization, aromatization and tailoring reactions. Recently, significant progress has been made in characterization and engineering of type II PKSs to produce novel products and improve product titers. In this review, we briefly summarize the architectural organizations and genetic contributions of PKS genes to provide insight into the biosynthetic process. We then review the most recent progress in engineered biosynthesis of aromatic polyketides, with emphasis on generating novel molecular structures. We also discuss the current challenges and future perspectives in the rational engineering of type II PKSs for large scale production of aromatic polyketides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Ruihua Zhang
- School of Chemical, Materials and Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Xin Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Xinxiao Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Yajun Yan
- School of Chemical, Materials and Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Xiaolin Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China.
| | - Qipeng Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100029, China.
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Zabala D, Song L, Dashti Y, Challis GL, Salas JA, Méndez C. Heterologous reconstitution of the biosynthesis pathway for 4-demethyl-premithramycinone, the aglycon of antitumor polyketide mithramycin. Microb Cell Fact 2020; 19:111. [PMID: 32448325 PMCID: PMC7247220 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-020-01368-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 05/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Mithramycin is an anti-tumor compound of the aureolic acid family produced by Streptomyces argillaceus. Its biosynthesis gene cluster has been cloned and characterized, and several new analogs with improved pharmacological properties have been generated through combinatorial biosynthesis. To further study these compounds as potential new anticancer drugs requires their production yields to be improved significantly. The biosynthesis of mithramycin proceeds through the formation of the key intermediate 4-demethyl-premithramycinone. Extensive studies have characterized the biosynthesis pathway from this intermediate to mithramycin. However, the biosynthesis pathway for 4-demethyl-premithramycinone remains unclear. RESULTS Expression of cosmid cosAR7, containing a set of mithramycin biosynthesis genes, in Streptomyces albus resulted in the production of 4-demethyl-premithramycinone, delimiting genes required for its biosynthesis. Inactivation of mtmL, encoding an ATP-dependent acyl-CoA ligase, led to the accumulation of the tricyclic intermediate 2-hydroxy-nogalonic acid, proving its essential role in the formation of the fourth ring of 4-demethyl-premithramycinone. Expression of different sets of mithramycin biosynthesis genes as cassettes in S. albus and analysis of the resulting metabolites, allowed the reconstitution of the biosynthesis pathway for 4-demethyl-premithramycinone, assigning gene functions and establishing the order of biosynthetic steps. CONCLUSIONS We established the biosynthesis pathway for 4-demethyl-premithramycinone, and identified the minimal set of genes required for its assembly. We propose that the biosynthesis starts with the formation of a linear decaketide by the minimal polyketide synthase MtmPKS. Then, the cyclase/aromatase MtmQ catalyzes the cyclization of the first ring (C7-C12), followed by formation of the second and third rings (C5-C14; C3-C16) catalyzed by the cyclase MtmY. Formation of the fourth ring (C1-C18) requires MtmL and MtmX. Finally, further oxygenation and reduction is catalyzed by MtmOII and MtmTI/MtmTII respectively, to generate the final stable tetracyclic intermediate 4-demethyl-premithramycinone. Understanding the biosynthesis of this compound affords enhanced possibilities to generate new mithramycin analogs and improve their production titers for bioactivity investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Zabala
- Departamento de Biología Funcional e Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (I.U.O.P.A), University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Lijiang Song
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Yousef Dashti
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Gregory L Challis
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
- Warwick Integrative Synthetic Biology Centre, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, 3800, Australia
| | - José A Salas
- Departamento de Biología Funcional e Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (I.U.O.P.A), University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain
| | - Carmen Méndez
- Departamento de Biología Funcional e Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (I.U.O.P.A), University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain.
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria de Asturias (ISPA), Oviedo, Spain.
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Kallscheuer N, Kage H, Milke L, Nett M, Marienhagen J. Microbial synthesis of the type I polyketide 6-methylsalicylate with Corynebacterium glutamicum. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2019; 103:9619-9631. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-019-10121-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Revised: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Nofiani R, Philmus B, Nindita Y, Mahmud T. 3-Ketoacyl-ACP synthase (KAS) III homologues and their roles in natural product biosynthesis. MEDCHEMCOMM 2019; 10:1517-1530. [PMID: 31673313 DOI: 10.1039/c9md00162j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The 3-ketoacyl-ACP synthase (KAS) III proteins are one of the most abundant enzymes in nature, as they are involved in the biosynthesis of fatty acids and natural products. KAS III enzymes catalyse a carbon-carbon bond formation reaction that involves the α-carbon of a thioester and the carbonyl carbon of another thioester. In addition to the typical KAS III enzymes involved in fatty acid and polyketide biosynthesis, there are proteins homologous to KAS III enzymes that catalyse reactions that are different from that of the traditional KAS III enzymes. Those include enzymes that are responsible for a head-to-head condensation reaction, the formation of acetoacetyl-CoA in mevalonate biosynthesis, tailoring processes via C-O bond formation or esterification, as well as amide formation. This review article highlights the diverse reactions catalysed by this class of enzymes and their role in natural product biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Risa Nofiani
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Oregon State University , Corvallis , OR 97333 , USA . .,Department of Chemistry , Universitas Tanjungpura , Pontianak , Indonesia
| | - Benjamin Philmus
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Oregon State University , Corvallis , OR 97333 , USA .
| | - Yosi Nindita
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Oregon State University , Corvallis , OR 97333 , USA .
| | - Taifo Mahmud
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences , Oregon State University , Corvallis , OR 97333 , USA .
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9
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Lukežič T, Fayad AA, Bader C, Harmrolfs K, Bartuli J, Groß S, Lešnik U, Hennessen F, Herrmann J, Pikl Š, Petković H, Müller R. Engineering Atypical Tetracycline Formation in Amycolatopsis sulphurea for the Production of Modified Chelocardin Antibiotics. ACS Chem Biol 2019; 14:468-477. [PMID: 30747520 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.8b01125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
To combat the increasing spread of antimicrobial resistance and the shortage of novel anti-infectives, one strategy for the development of new antibiotics is to optimize known chemical scaffolds. Here, we focus on the biosynthetic engineering of Amycolatopsis sulphurea for derivatization of the atypical tetracycline chelocardin and its potent broad-spectrum derivative 2-carboxamido-2-deacetyl-chelocardin. Heterologous biosynthetic genes were introduced into this chelocardin producer to modify functional groups and generate new derivatives. We demonstrate cooperation of chelocardin polyketide synthase with tailoring enzymes involved in biosynthesis of oxytetracycline from Streptomyces rimosus. An interesting feature of chelocardin, compared with oxytetracycline, is the opposite stereochemistry of the C4 amino group. Genes involved in C4 transamination and N,N-dimethylation of oxytetracycline were heterologously expressed in an A. sulphurea mutant lacking C4-aminotransferase. Chelocardin derivatives with opposite stereochemistry of the C4 amino group, as N,N-dimethyl- epi-chelocardin and N,N-dimethyl-2-carboxamido-2-deacetyl- epi-chelocardin, were produced only when the aminotransferase from oxytetracycline was coexpressed with the N-methyltransferase OxyT. Surprisingly, OxyT exclusively accepted intermediates carrying an S-configured amino group at C4 in chelocardin. Applying medicinal chemistry approaches, several 2-carboxamido-2-deacetyl- epi-chelocardin derivatives modified at C4 were produced. Analysis of the antimicrobial activities of the modified compounds demonstrated that the primary amine in the R configuration is a crucial structural feature for activity of chelocardin. Unexpectedly, C10 glycosylated chelocardin analogues were identified, thus revealing the glycosylation potential of A. sulphurea. However, efficient glycosylation of the chelocardin backbone occurred only after engineering of a dimethylated amino group at the C4 position in the opposite S configuration, which suggests some evolutionary remains of chelocardin glycosylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tadeja Lukežič
- Department of Microbial Natural Products, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), and Department of
Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus E8.1, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Hannover-Braunschweig, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
- Acies Bio, d.o.o., Tehnološki Park 21, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Antoine Abou Fayad
- Department of Microbial Natural Products, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), and Department of
Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus E8.1, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Hannover-Braunschweig, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Chantal Bader
- Department of Microbial Natural Products, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), and Department of
Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus E8.1, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Hannover-Braunschweig, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Kirsten Harmrolfs
- Department of Microbial Natural Products, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), and Department of
Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus E8.1, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Hannover-Braunschweig, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Johannes Bartuli
- Department of Microbial Natural Products, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), and Department of
Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus E8.1, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Hannover-Braunschweig, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Sebastian Groß
- Department of Microbial Natural Products, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), and Department of
Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus E8.1, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Hannover-Braunschweig, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Urška Lešnik
- Acies Bio, d.o.o., Tehnološki Park 21, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Fabienne Hennessen
- Department of Microbial Natural Products, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), and Department of
Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus E8.1, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Hannover-Braunschweig, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Jennifer Herrmann
- Department of Microbial Natural Products, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), and Department of
Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus E8.1, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Hannover-Braunschweig, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Špela Pikl
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Hrvoje Petković
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Rolf Müller
- Department of Microbial Natural Products, Helmholtz Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), and Department of
Pharmacy, Saarland University, Campus E8.1, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner site Hannover-Braunschweig, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
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Computational identification of co-evolving multi-gene modules in microbial biosynthetic gene clusters. Commun Biol 2019; 2:83. [PMID: 30854475 PMCID: PMC6395733 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-019-0333-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The biosynthetic machinery responsible for the production of bacterial specialised metabolites is encoded by physically clustered group of genes called biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs). The experimental characterisation of numerous BGCs has led to the elucidation of subclusters of genes within BGCs, jointly responsible for the same biosynthetic function in different genetic contexts. We developed an unsupervised statistical method able to successfully detect a large number of modules (putative functional subclusters) within an extensive set of predicted BGCs in a systematic and automated manner. Multiple already known subclusters were confirmed by our method, proving its efficiency and sensitivity. In addition, the resulting large collection of newly defined modules provides new insights into the prevalence and putative biosynthetic role of these modular genetic entities. The automated and unbiased identification of hundreds of co-evolving group of genes is an essential breakthrough for the discovery and biosynthetic engineering of high-value compounds.
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11
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Kemung HM, Tan LTH, Khan TM, Chan KG, Pusparajah P, Goh BH, Lee LH. Streptomyces as a Prominent Resource of Future Anti-MRSA Drugs. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:2221. [PMID: 30319563 PMCID: PMC6165876 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 08/30/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) pose a significant health threat as they tend to cause severe infections in vulnerable populations and are difficult to treat due to a limited range of effective antibiotics and also their ability to form biofilm. These organisms were once limited to hospital acquired infections but are now widely present in the community and even in animals. Furthermore, these organisms are constantly evolving to develop resistance to more antibiotics. This results in a need for new clinically useful antibiotics and one potential source are the Streptomyces which have already been the source of several anti-MRSA drugs including vancomycin. There remain large numbers of Streptomyces potentially undiscovered in underexplored regions such as mangrove, deserts, marine, and freshwater environments as well as endophytes. Organisms from these regions also face significant challenges to survival which often result in the production of novel bioactive compounds, several of which have already shown promise in drug development. We review the various mechanisms of antibiotic resistance in MRSA and all the known compounds isolated from Streptomyces with anti-MRSA activity with a focus on those from underexplored regions. The isolation of the full array of compounds Streptomyces are potentially capable of producing in the laboratory has proven a challenge, we also review techniques that have been used to overcome this obstacle including genetic cluster analysis. Additionally, we review the in vivo work done thus far with promising compounds of Streptomyces origin as well as the animal models that could be used for this work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hefa Mangzira Kemung
- Novel Bacteria and Drug Discovery Research Group, Biomedicine Research Advancement Centre, School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia.,Biofunctional Molecule Exploratory Research Group, Biomedicine Research Advancement Centre, School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
| | - Loh Teng-Hern Tan
- Novel Bacteria and Drug Discovery Research Group, Biomedicine Research Advancement Centre, School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia.,Biofunctional Molecule Exploratory Research Group, Biomedicine Research Advancement Centre, School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia.,Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
| | - Tahir Mehmood Khan
- Novel Bacteria and Drug Discovery Research Group, Biomedicine Research Advancement Centre, School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia.,Biofunctional Molecule Exploratory Research Group, Biomedicine Research Advancement Centre, School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia.,The Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (IPS), University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences (UVAS), Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Kok-Gan Chan
- Division of Genetics and Molecular Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.,International Genome Centre, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Priyia Pusparajah
- Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia
| | - Bey-Hing Goh
- Novel Bacteria and Drug Discovery Research Group, Biomedicine Research Advancement Centre, School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia.,Biofunctional Molecule Exploratory Research Group, Biomedicine Research Advancement Centre, School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia.,Center of Health Outcomes Research and Therapeutic Safety (Cohorts), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Phayao, Mueang Phayao, Thailand
| | - Learn-Han Lee
- Novel Bacteria and Drug Discovery Research Group, Biomedicine Research Advancement Centre, School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia.,Biofunctional Molecule Exploratory Research Group, Biomedicine Research Advancement Centre, School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia.,Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia.,Center of Health Outcomes Research and Therapeutic Safety (Cohorts), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Phayao, Mueang Phayao, Thailand
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12
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Guo X, Crnovcic I, Chang CY, Luo J, Lohman JR, Papinski M, Bechthold A, Horsman GP, Shen B. PokMT1 from the Polyketomycin Biosynthetic Machinery of Streptomyces diastatochromogenes Tü6028 Belongs to the Emerging Family of C-Methyltransferases That Act on CoA-Activated Aromatic Substrates. Biochemistry 2018; 57:1003-1011. [PMID: 29341603 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.7b01219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Recent biochemical characterizations of the MdpB2 CoA ligase and MdpB1 C-methyltransferase (C-MT) from the maduropeptin (MDP, 2) biosynthetic machinery revealed unusual pathway logic involving C-methylation occurring on a CoA-activated aromatic substrate. Here we confirmed this pathway logic for the biosynthesis of polyketomycin (POK, 3). Biochemical characterization unambiguously established that PokM3 and PokMT1 catalyze the sequential conversion of 6-methylsalicylic acid (6-MSA, 4) to form 3,6-dimethylsalicylyl-CoA (3,6-DMSA-CoA, 6), which serves as the direct precursor for the 3,6-dimethylsalicylic acid (3,6-DMSA) moiety in the biosynthesis of 3. PokMT1 catalyzes the C-methylation of 6-methylsalicylyl-CoA (6-MSA-CoA, 5) with a kcat of 1.9 min-1 and a Km of 2.2 ± 0.1 μM, representing the most proficient C-MT characterized to date. Bioinformatics analysis of MTs from natural product biosynthetic machineries demonstrated that PokMT1 and MdpB1 belong to a phylogenetic clade of C-MTs that preferably act on aromatic acids. Significantly, this clade includes the structurally characterized enzyme SibL, which catalyzes C-methylation of 3-hydroxykynurenine in its free acid form, using two conserved tyrosine residues for catalysis. A homology model and site-directed mutagenesis suggested that PokMT1 also employs this unusual arrangement of tyrosine residues to coordinate C-methylation but revealed a large cavity capable of accommodating the CoA moiety tethered to 5. CoA activation of the aromatic acid substrate may represent a general strategy that could be exploited to improve catalytic efficiency. This study sets the stage to further investigate and exploit the catalytic utility of this emerging family of C-MTs in biocatalysis and synthetic biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xun Guo
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute , Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Ivana Crnovcic
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute , Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Chin-Yuan Chang
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute , Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Jun Luo
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute , Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Jeremy R Lohman
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute , Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Monica Papinski
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Wilfrid Laurier University , Waterloo, ON N2L 3C5, Canada
| | - Andreas Bechthold
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, University of Freiburg , Stefan-Meier-Strasse 19, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Geoffrey P Horsman
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Wilfrid Laurier University , Waterloo, ON N2L 3C5, Canada
| | - Ben Shen
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute , Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States.,Department of Molecular Medicine, The Scripps Research Institute , Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States.,Natural Products Library Initiative at The Scripps Research Institute, The Scripps Research Institute , Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
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13
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Malmierca MG, González-Montes L, Pérez-Victoria I, Sialer C, Braña AF, García Salcedo R, Martín J, Reyes F, Méndez C, Olano C, Salas JA. Searching for Glycosylated Natural Products in Actinomycetes and Identification of Novel Macrolactams and Angucyclines. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:39. [PMID: 29441046 PMCID: PMC5797532 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Many bioactive natural products are glycosylated compounds in which the sugar components usually participate in interaction and molecular recognition of the cellular target. Therefore, the presence of sugar moieties is important, in some cases essential, for bioactivity. Searching for novel glycosylated bioactive compounds is an important aim in the field of the research for natural products from actinomycetes. A great majority of these sugar moieties belong to the 6-deoxyhexoses and share two common biosynthetic steps catalyzed by a NDP-D-glucose synthase (GS) and a NDP-D-glucose 4,6-dehydratase (DH). Based on this fact, seventy one Streptomyces strains isolated from the integument of ants of the Tribe Attini were screened for the presence of biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) for glycosylated compounds. Total DNAs were analyzed by PCR amplification using oligo primers for GSs and DHs and also for a NDP-D-glucose-2,3-dehydratases. Amplicons were used in gene disruption experiments to generate non-producing mutants in the corresponding clusters. Eleven mutants were obtained and comparative dereplication analyses between the wild type strains and the corresponding mutants allowed in some cases the identification of the compound coded by the corresponding cluster (lobophorins, vicenistatin, chromomycins and benzanthrins) and that of two novel macrolactams (sipanmycin A and B). Several strains did not show UPLC differential peaks between the wild type strain and mutant profiles. However, after genome sequencing of these strains, the activation of the expression of two clusters was achieved by using nutritional and genetic approaches leading to the identification of compounds of the cervimycins family and two novel members of the warkmycins family. Our work defines a useful strategy for the identification new glycosylated compounds by a combination of genome mining, gene inactivation experiments and the activation of silent biosynthetic clusters in Streptomyces strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mónica G Malmierca
- Departamento de Biología Funcional e Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Lorena González-Montes
- Departamento de Biología Funcional e Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
| | | | - Carlos Sialer
- Departamento de Biología Funcional e Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Alfredo F Braña
- Departamento de Biología Funcional e Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Raúl García Salcedo
- Departamento de Biología Funcional e Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Jesús Martín
- Fundación MEDINA, Parque Tecnológico de Ciencias de la Salud, Granada, Spain
| | - Fernando Reyes
- Fundación MEDINA, Parque Tecnológico de Ciencias de la Salud, Granada, Spain
| | - Carmen Méndez
- Departamento de Biología Funcional e Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias, Oviedo, Spain
| | - Carlos Olano
- Departamento de Biología Funcional e Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias, Oviedo, Spain
| | - José A Salas
- Departamento de Biología Funcional e Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, Spain.,Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Principado de Asturias, Oviedo, Spain
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14
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Han J, Ng B, Sohng J, Yoon Y, Choi G, Kim B. Functional characterization of O
-methyltransferases used to catalyse site-specific methylation in the post-tailoring steps of pradimicin biosynthesis. J Appl Microbiol 2017; 124:144-154. [DOI: 10.1111/jam.13619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2017] [Revised: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 10/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J.W. Han
- Department of Biotechnology; Korea University Graduate School; Seoul Korea
- Center for Eco-friendly New Materials; Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology; Daejeon Korea
| | - B.G. Ng
- Department of Biotechnology; Korea University Graduate School; Seoul Korea
| | - J.K. Sohng
- Department of Pharmaceutical Engineering; Sun Moon University; Asan Korea
| | - Y.J. Yoon
- Department of Chemistry and Nano Science; Ewha Womans University; Seoul Korea
| | - G.J. Choi
- Center for Eco-friendly New Materials; Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology; Daejeon Korea
| | - B.S. Kim
- Department of Biotechnology; Korea University Graduate School; Seoul Korea
- Division of Biotechnology; College of Life Sciences and Biotechnology; Korea University; Seoul Korea
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15
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Iorio M, Cruz J, Simone M, Bernasconi A, Brunati C, Sosio M, Donadio S, Maffioli SI. Antibacterial Paramagnetic Quinones from Actinoallomurus. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2017; 80:819-827. [PMID: 28218529 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.6b00654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Four metabolites, designated paramagnetoquinone A, B, C, and D (1-4), were isolated from three strains belonging to the actinomycete genus Actinoallomurus. Compounds 1 and 2 showed potent antibacterial activity with MIC values lower than 0.015 μg/mL against Gram-positive pathogens, including antibiotic-resistant strains. Since compounds 1 and 2 were NMR-silent due to the presence of an oxygen radical, structure elucidation was achieved through a combination of derivatizations, oxidations, and analysis of 13C-labeled compounds. The paramagnetoquinones share the same carbon scaffold as tetracenomycin but carry two quinones and a five-membered lactone fused to the aromatic system. Compounds 2 and 1 are identical except for an unprecedented replacement of a methoxy in 2 by a methylamino group in 1. Related compounds devoid of methyl group(s) and of antibacterial activity were isolated from a different Actinoallomurus strain. The likely pmq biosynthetic gene cluster was identified from strain ID145113. While the cluster encodes many of the expected enzymes involved in the formation of aromatic polyketides, it also encodes a dedicated ketoacid dehydrogenase complex and an unusual acyl carrier protein transacylase, suggesting that an unusual starter unit might prime the polyketide synthase.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - João Cruz
- KtedoGen Srl , Viale Ortles 22/4, 20139 Milano, Italy
| | - Matteo Simone
- Naicons Srl , Viale Ortles 22/4, 20139 Milano, Italy
| | | | | | | | - Stefano Donadio
- Naicons Srl , Viale Ortles 22/4, 20139 Milano, Italy
- KtedoGen Srl , Viale Ortles 22/4, 20139 Milano, Italy
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16
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Greule A, Marolt M, Deubel D, Peintner I, Zhang S, Jessen-Trefzer C, De Ford C, Burschel S, Li SM, Friedrich T, Merfort I, Lüdeke S, Bisel P, Müller M, Paululat T, Bechthold A. Wide Distribution of Foxicin Biosynthetic Gene Clusters in Streptomyces Strains - An Unusual Secondary Metabolite with Various Properties. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:221. [PMID: 28270798 PMCID: PMC5318452 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.00221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2016] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Streptomyces diastatochromogenes Tü6028 is known to produce the polyketide antibiotic polyketomycin. The deletion of the pokOIV oxygenase gene led to a non-polyketomycin-producing mutant. Instead, novel compounds were produced by the mutant, which have not been detected before in the wild type strain. Four different compounds were identified and named foxicins A–D. Foxicin A was isolated and its structure was elucidated as an unusual nitrogen-containing quinone derivative using various spectroscopic methods. Through genome mining, the foxicin biosynthetic gene cluster was identified in the draft genome sequence of S. diastatochromogenes. The cluster spans 57 kb and encodes three PKS type I modules, one NRPS module and 41 additional enzymes. A foxBII gene-inactivated mutant of S. diastatochromogenes Tü6028 ΔpokOIV is unable to produce foxicins. Homologous fox biosynthetic gene clusters were found in more than 20 additional Streptomyces strains, overall in about 2.6% of all sequenced Streptomyces genomes. However, the production of foxicin-like compounds in these strains has never been described indicating that the clusters are expressed at a very low level or are silent under fermentation conditions. Foxicin A acts as a siderophore through interacting with ferric ions. Furthermore, it is a weak inhibitor of the Escherichia coli aerobic respiratory chain and shows moderate antibiotic activity. The wide distribution of the cluster and the various properties of the compound indicate a major role of foxicins in Streptomyces strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Greule
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Marija Marolt
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medical Chemistry, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Denise Deubel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Iris Peintner
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Songya Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Claudia Jessen-Trefzer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Christian De Ford
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of FreiburgFreiburg im Breisgau, Germany; Spemann Graduate School of Biology and Medicine, Albert-Ludwigs-University of FreiburgFreiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Sabrina Burschel
- Institute of Biochemistry, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Shu-Ming Li
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Philipps-University Marburg Marburg, Germany
| | - Thorsten Friedrich
- Institute of Biochemistry, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Irmgard Merfort
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Steffen Lüdeke
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medical Chemistry, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Philippe Bisel
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medical Chemistry, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Michael Müller
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Medical Chemistry, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
| | - Thomas Paululat
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, University of Siegen Siegen, Germany
| | - Andreas Bechthold
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany
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17
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Abugrain ME, Brumsted CJ, Osborn AR, Philmus B, Mahmud T. A Highly Promiscuous ß-Ketoacyl-ACP Synthase (KAS) III-like Protein Is Involved in Pactamycin Biosynthesis. ACS Chem Biol 2017; 12:362-366. [PMID: 28060484 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.6b01043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
β-Ketoacyl-acyl carrier protein (β-Ketoacyl-ACP) synthase (KAS) III catalyzes the first step in fatty acid biosynthesis, involving a Claisen condensation of the acetyl-CoA starter unit with the first extender unit, malonyl-ACP, to form acetoacetyl-ACP. KAS III-like proteins have also been reported to catalyze acyltransferase reactions using coenzyme A esters or discrete ACP-bound substrates. Here, we report the in vivo and in vitro characterizations of a KAS III-like protein (PtmR), which directly transfers a 6-methylsalicylyl moiety from an iterative type I polyketide synthase to an aminocyclopentitol unit in pactamycin biosynthesis. PtmR is highly promiscuous, recognizing a wide array of S-acyl-N-acetylcysteamines as substrates to produce a suite of pactamycin derivatives with diverse alkyl and aromatic features. The results suggest that KAS III-like proteins may be used as versatile tools for modifications of complex natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mostafa E. Abugrain
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97333, United States
| | - Corey J. Brumsted
- Department
of Chemistry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97333, United States
| | - Andrew R. Osborn
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97333, United States
| | - Benjamin Philmus
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97333, United States
| | - Taifo Mahmud
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97333, United States
- Department
of Chemistry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97333, United States
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18
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Greule A, Zhang S, Paululat T, Bechthold A. From a Natural Product to Its Biosynthetic Gene Cluster: A Demonstration Using Polyketomycin from Streptomyces diastatochromogenes Tü6028. J Vis Exp 2017. [PMID: 28117820 PMCID: PMC5352224 DOI: 10.3791/54952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Streptomyces strains are known for their capability to produce a lot of different compounds with various bioactivities. Cultivation under different conditions often leads to the production of new compounds. Therefore, production cultures of the strains are extracted with ethyl acetate and the crude extracts are analyzed by HPLC. Furthermore, the extracts are tested for their bioactivity by different assays. For structure elucidation the compound of interest is purified by a combination of different chromatography methods. Genome sequencing coupled with genome mining allows the identification of a natural product biosynthetic gene cluster using different computer programs. To confirm that the correct gene cluster has been identified, gene inactivation experiments have to be performed. The resulting mutants are analyzed for the production of the particular natural product. Once the correct gene cluster has been inactivated, the strain should fail to produce the compound. The workflow is shown for the antibacterial compound polyketomycin produced by Streptomyces diastatochromogenes Tü6028. Around ten years ago, when genome sequencing was still very expensive, the cloning and identification of a gene cluster was a very time-consuming process. Fast genome sequencing combined with genome mining accelerates the trial of cluster identification and opens up new ways to explore biosynthesis and to generate novel natural products by genetic methods. The protocol described in this paper can be assigned to any other compound derived from a Streptomyces strain or another microorganism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Greule
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Germany
| | - Songya Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Germany
| | | | - Andreas Bechthold
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Germany;
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19
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Petković H, Lukežič T, Šušković J. Biosynthesis of Oxytetracycline by Streptomyces rimosus:
Past, Present and Future Directions in the Development
of Tetracycline Antibiotics. Food Technol Biotechnol 2017; 55:3-13. [PMID: 28559729 DOI: 10.17113/ftb.55.01.17.4617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural tetracycline (TC) antibiotics were the first major class of therapeutics to earn the distinction of 'broad-spectrum antibiotics' and they have been used since the 1940s against a wide range of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogens, mycoplasmas, intracellular chlamydiae, rickettsiae and protozoan parasites. The second generation of semisynthetic tetracyclines, such as minocycline and doxycycline, with improved antimicrobial potency, were introduced during the 1960s. Despite emerging resistance to TCs erupting during the 1980s, it was not until 2006, more than four decades later, that a third--generation TC, named tigecycline, was launched. In addition, two TC analogues, omadacycline and eravacycline, developed via (semi)synthetic and fully synthetic routes, respectively, are at present under clinical evaluation. Interestingly, despite very productive early work on the isolation of a Streptomyces aureofaciens mutant strain that produced 6-demethyl-7-chlortetracycline, the key intermediate in the production of second- and third-generation TCs, biosynthetic approaches in TC development have not been productive for more than 50 years. Relatively slow and tedious molecular biology approaches for the genetic manipulation of TC-producing actinobacteria, as well as an insufficient understanding of the enzymatic mechanisms involved in TC biosynthesis have significantly contributed to the low success of such biosynthetic engineering efforts. However, new opportunities in TC drug development have arisen thanks to a significant progress in the development of affordable and versatile biosynthetic engineering and synthetic biology approaches, and, importantly, to a much deeper understanding of TC biosynthesis, mostly gained over the last two decades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hrvoje Petković
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty,
Jamnikarjeva 101, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Tadeja Lukežič
- Department of Microbial Natural Products, Helmholtz-Institute for Pharmaceutical Research Saarland (HIPS), Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI) and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology,
Saarland University, Campus E 8.1, DE-66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Jagoda Šušković
- Department of Biochemical Engineering, Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology,
University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia
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20
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Chen M, Liu J, Duan P, Li M, Liu W. Biosynthesis and molecular engineering of templated natural products. Natl Sci Rev 2016. [DOI: 10.1093/nsr/nww045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Bioactive small molecules that are produced by living organisms, often referred to as natural products (NPs), historically play a critical role in the context of both medicinal chemistry and chemical biology. How nature creates these chemical entities with stunning structural complexity and diversity using a limited range of simple substrates has not been fully understood. Focusing on two types of NPs that share a highly evolvable ‘template’-biosynthetic logic, we here provide specific examples to highlight the conceptual and technological leaps in NP biosynthesis and witness the area of progress since the beginning of the twenty-first century. The biosynthesis of polyketides, non-ribosomal peptides and their hybrids that share an assembly-line enzymology of modular multifunctional proteins exemplifies an extended ‘central dogma’ that correlates the genotype of catalysts with the chemotype of products; in parallel, post-translational modifications of ribosomally synthesized peptides involve a number of unusual biochemical mechanisms for molecular maturation. Understanding the biosynthetic processes of these templated NPs would largely facilitate the design, development and utilization of compatible biosynthetic machineries to address the challenge that often arises from structural complexity to the accessibility and efficiency of current chemical synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Jingyu Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Panpan Duan
- State Key Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Mulin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Wen Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, School of Life Science & Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
- Huzhou Center of Bio-Synthetic Innovation, Huzhou 313000, China
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21
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Sun L, Wang S, Zhang S, Shao L, Zhang Q, Skidmore C, Chang CWT, Yu D, Zhan J. Characterization of Three Tailoring Enzymes in Dutomycin Biosynthesis and Generation of a Potent Antibacterial Analogue. ACS Chem Biol 2016; 11:1992-2001. [PMID: 27195476 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.6b00245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The anthracycline natural product dutomycin and its precursor POK-MD1 were isolated from Streptomyces minoensis NRRL B-5482. The dutomycin biosynthetic gene cluster was identified by genome sequencing and disruption of the ketosynthase gene. Two polyketide synthase (PKS) systems are present in the gene cluster, including a type II PKS and a rare highly reducing iterative type I PKS. The type I PKS DutG repeatedly uses its active sites to create a nine-carbon triketide chain that is subsequently transferred to the α-l-axenose moiety of POK-MD1 at 4″-OH to yield dutomycin. Using a heterologous recombination approach, we disrupted a putative methyltransferase gene (dutMT1) and two glycosyltransferase genes (dutGT1 and dutGT2). Analysis of the metabolites of these mutants revealed the functions of these genes and yielded three dutomycin analogues SW140, SW91, and SW75. The major product SW91 in Streptomyces minoensis NRRL B-5482-ΔDutMT1 was identified as 12-desmethyl-dutomycin, suggesting that DutMT1 is the dedicated 12-methyltransferase. This was confirmed by the in vitro enzymatic assay. DutGT1 and DutGT2 were found to be responsible for the introduction of β-d-amicetose and α-l-axenose, respectively. Dutomycin and SW91 showed strong antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant S. aureus, whereas POK-MD1 and SW75 had no obvious inhibition, which revealed the essential role of the C-4″ triketide chain in antibacterial activity. The minimal inhibitory concentration of SW91 against the two strains was 0.125 μg mL(-1), lower than that of dutomycin (0.25 μg mL(-1)), indicating that the antibacterial activity of dutomycin can be improved through biosynthetic structural modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Sun
- Department
of Biological Engineering, Utah State University, 4105 Old Main Hill, Logan, Utah 84322-4105, United States
| | - Siyuan Wang
- Department
of Biological Engineering, Utah State University, 4105 Old Main Hill, Logan, Utah 84322-4105, United States
| | - Shuwei Zhang
- Department
of Biological Engineering, Utah State University, 4105 Old Main Hill, Logan, Utah 84322-4105, United States
| | - Lei Shao
- Department
of Biological Engineering, Utah State University, 4105 Old Main Hill, Logan, Utah 84322-4105, United States
| | - Qian Zhang
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, 0300 Old
Main Hill, Logan, Utah 84322-0300, United States
| | - Chad Skidmore
- Department
of Biological Engineering, Utah State University, 4105 Old Main Hill, Logan, Utah 84322-4105, United States
| | - Cheng-Wei Tom Chang
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Utah State University, 0300 Old
Main Hill, Logan, Utah 84322-0300, United States
| | - Dayu Yu
- Department
of Biological Engineering, Utah State University, 4105 Old Main Hill, Logan, Utah 84322-4105, United States
- Department
of Applied Chemistry and Biological Engineering, College of Chemical
Engineering, Northeast Dianli University, Jilin, Jilin 132012, China
| | - Jixun Zhan
- Department
of Biological Engineering, Utah State University, 4105 Old Main Hill, Logan, Utah 84322-4105, United States
- TCM and Ethnomedicine Innovation & Development Laboratory, School of Pharmacy, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha, Hunan 410208, China
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22
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Xu W, Raetz LB, Wang P, Tang Y. An ATP-dependent ligase catalyzes the fourth ring cyclization in tetracycline biosynthesis. Tetrahedron 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2015.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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23
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Discovery of cahuitamycins as biofilm inhibitors derived from a convergent biosynthetic pathway. Nat Commun 2016; 7:10710. [PMID: 26880271 PMCID: PMC4757757 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms10710] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Accepted: 01/11/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Pathogenic microorganisms often have the ability to attach to a surface, building a complex matrix where they colonize to form a biofilm. This cellular superstructure can display increased resistance to antibiotics and cause serious, persistent health problems in humans. Here we describe a high-throughput in vitro screen to identify inhibitors of Acinetobacter baumannii biofilms using a library of natural product extracts derived from marine microbes. Analysis of extracts derived from Streptomyces gandocaensis results in the discovery of three peptidic metabolites (cahuitamycins A-C), with cahuitamycin C being the most effective inhibitor (IC50=14.5 μM). Biosynthesis of cahuitamycin C proceeds via a convergent biosynthetic pathway, with one of the steps apparently being catalysed by an unlinked gene encoding a 6-methylsalicylate synthase. Efforts to assess starter unit diversification through selective mutasynthesis lead to production of unnatural analogues cahuitamycins D and E of increased potency (IC50=8.4 and 10.5 μM).
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Structural and functional analysis of two di-domain aromatase/cyclases from type II polyketide synthases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:E6844-51. [PMID: 26631750 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1512976112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Aromatic polyketides make up a large class of natural products with diverse bioactivity. During biosynthesis, linear poly-β-ketone intermediates are regiospecifically cyclized, yielding molecules with defined cyclization patterns that are crucial for polyketide bioactivity. The aromatase/cyclases (ARO/CYCs) are responsible for regiospecific cyclization of bacterial polyketides. The two most common cyclization patterns are C7-C12 and C9-C14 cyclizations. We have previously characterized three monodomain ARO/CYCs: ZhuI, TcmN, and WhiE. The last remaining uncharacterized class of ARO/CYCs is the di-domain ARO/CYCs, which catalyze C7-C12 cyclization and/or aromatization. Di-domain ARO/CYCs can further be separated into two subclasses: "nonreducing" ARO/CYCs, which act on nonreduced poly-β-ketones, and "reducing" ARO/CYCs, which act on cyclized C9 reduced poly-β-ketones. For years, the functional role of each domain in cyclization and aromatization for di-domain ARO/CYCs has remained a mystery. Here we present what is to our knowledge the first structural and functional analysis, along with an in-depth comparison, of the nonreducing (StfQ) and reducing (BexL) di-domain ARO/CYCs. This work completes the structural and functional characterization of mono- and di-domain ARO/CYCs in bacterial type II polyketide synthases and lays the groundwork for engineered biosynthesis of new bioactive polyketides.
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25
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Iterative polyketide biosynthesis by modular polyketide synthases in bacteria. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 100:541-57. [PMID: 26549236 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-015-7093-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2015] [Revised: 10/10/2015] [Accepted: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Modular polyketide synthases (type I PKSs) in bacteria are responsible for synthesizing a significant percentage of bioactive natural products. This group of synthases has a characteristic modular organization, and each module within a PKS carries out one cycle of polyketide chain elongation; thus each module is non-iterative in function. It was possible to predict the basic structure of a polyketide product from the module organization of the PKSs, since there generally existed a co-linearity between the number of modules and the number of chain elongations. However, more and more bacterial modular PKSs fail to conform to the canonical rules, and a particularly noteworthy group of non-canonical PKSs is the bacterial iterative type I PKSs. This review covers recent examples of iteratively used modular PKSs in bacteria. These non-canonical PKSs give rise to a large array of natural products with impressive structural diversity. The molecular mechanism behind the iterations is often unclear, presenting a new challenge to the rational engineering of these PKSs with the goal of generating new natural products. Structural elucidation of these synthase complexes and better understanding of potential PKS-PKS interactions as well as PKS-substrate recognition may provide new prospects and inspirations for the discovery and engineering of new bioactive polyketides.
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26
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Cano-Prieto C, García-Salcedo R, Sánchez-Hidalgo M, Braña AF, Fiedler HP, Méndez C, Salas JA, Olano C. Genome Mining of Streptomyces sp. Tü 6176: Characterization of the Nataxazole Biosynthesis Pathway. Chembiochem 2015; 16:1461-73. [PMID: 25892546 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201500153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Streptomyces sp. Tü 6176 produces the cytotoxic benzoxazole nataxazole. Bioinformatic analysis of the genome of this organism predicts the presence of 38 putative secondary-metabolite biosynthesis gene clusters, including those involved in the biosynthesis of AJI9561 and its derivative nataxazole, the antibiotic hygromycin B, and ionophores enterobactin and coelibactin. The nataxazole biosynthesis gene cluster was identified and characterized: it lacks the O-methyltransferase gene required to convert AJI9561 into nataxazole. This O-methyltransferase activity might act as a resistance mechanism, as AJI9561 shows antibiotic activity whereas nataxazole is inactive. Moreover, heterologous expression of the nataxazole biosynthesis gene cluster in S. lividans JT46 resulted in the production of AJI9561. Nataxazole biosynthesis requires the shikimate pathway to generate 3-hydroxyanthranilate and an iterative type I PKS to generate 6-methylsalicylate. Production of nataxazole was improved up to fourfold by disrupting one regulatory gene in the cluster. An additional benzoxazole, 5-hydroxynataxazole is produced by Streptomyces sp. Tü 6176. 5-Hydroxynataxazole derives from nataxazole by the activity of an as yet unidentified oxygenase; this implies cross-talk between the nataxazole biosynthesis pathway and an unknown pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolina Cano-Prieto
- Departamento de Biología Funcional e Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (I.U.O.P.A), Universidad de Oviedo, C/ Julian Clavería S/N, 33006 Oviedo (Spain)
| | - Raúl García-Salcedo
- Departamento de Biología Funcional e Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (I.U.O.P.A), Universidad de Oviedo, C/ Julian Clavería S/N, 33006 Oviedo (Spain)
| | - Marina Sánchez-Hidalgo
- Departamento de Biología Funcional e Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (I.U.O.P.A), Universidad de Oviedo, C/ Julian Clavería S/N, 33006 Oviedo (Spain)
| | - Alfredo F Braña
- Departamento de Biología Funcional e Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (I.U.O.P.A), Universidad de Oviedo, C/ Julian Clavería S/N, 33006 Oviedo (Spain)
| | - Hans-Peter Fiedler
- Mikrobiologisches Institut, Universität Tübingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tübingen (Germany)
| | - Carmen Méndez
- Departamento de Biología Funcional e Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (I.U.O.P.A), Universidad de Oviedo, C/ Julian Clavería S/N, 33006 Oviedo (Spain)
| | - José A Salas
- Departamento de Biología Funcional e Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (I.U.O.P.A), Universidad de Oviedo, C/ Julian Clavería S/N, 33006 Oviedo (Spain)
| | - Carlos Olano
- Departamento de Biología Funcional e Instituto Universitario de Oncología del Principado de Asturias (I.U.O.P.A), Universidad de Oviedo, C/ Julian Clavería S/N, 33006 Oviedo (Spain).
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Singh S, Nandurkar NS, Thorson JS. Characterization of the calicheamicin orsellinate C2-O-methyltransferase CalO6. Chembiochem 2015; 15:1418-21. [PMID: 24978950 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201402119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Although bacterial iterative type I polyketide synthases are now known to participate in the biosynthesis of a small set of diverse natural products, the subsequent downstream modification of the resulting polyketide products is poorly understood. We report the functional characterization of the putative orsellinic acid C2-O-methyltransferase, which is involved in calicheamicin biosynthesis. This study suggests that C2-O-methylation precedes C3-hydroxylation/methylation and C5-iodination and requires a coenzyme A- or acyl carrier protein-bound substrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanteri Singh
- Center for Pharmaceutical Research and Innovation, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, 789 South Limestone Street, Lexington, KY 40536 (USA).
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28
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Medema MH, Cimermancic P, Sali A, Takano E, Fischbach MA. A systematic computational analysis of biosynthetic gene cluster evolution: lessons for engineering biosynthesis. PLoS Comput Biol 2014; 10:e1004016. [PMID: 25474254 PMCID: PMC4256081 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1004016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2014] [Accepted: 10/31/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacterial secondary metabolites are widely used as antibiotics, anticancer drugs, insecticides and food additives. Attempts to engineer their biosynthetic gene clusters (BGCs) to produce unnatural metabolites with improved properties are often frustrated by the unpredictability and complexity of the enzymes that synthesize these molecules, suggesting that genetic changes within BGCs are limited by specific constraints. Here, by performing a systematic computational analysis of BGC evolution, we derive evidence for three findings that shed light on the ways in which, despite these constraints, nature successfully invents new molecules: 1) BGCs for complex molecules often evolve through the successive merger of smaller sub-clusters, which function as independent evolutionary entities. 2) An important subset of polyketide synthases and nonribosomal peptide synthetases evolve by concerted evolution, which generates sets of sequence-homogenized domains that may hold promise for engineering efforts since they exhibit a high degree of functional interoperability, 3) Individual BGC families evolve in distinct ways, suggesting that design strategies should take into account family-specific functional constraints. These findings suggest novel strategies for using synthetic biology to rationally engineer biosynthetic pathways. Bacterial secondary metabolites mediate a broad range of microbe-microbe and microbe-host interactions, and are widely used in human medicine, agriculture and manufacturing. Despite recent advances in synthetic biology, efforts to engineer their biosynthetic genes for the production of unnatural variants are frustrated by a high failure rate. In an effort to better understand what types of genetic changes are most likely to lead to successful improvements, we systematically analyzed the ways in which biosynthetic genes naturally evolve to generate new compounds. We show that large gene clusters appear to evolve through the merger of sub-clusters, which function independently, and are promising units for cluster engineering. Moreover, a subset of gene clusters evolve by concerted evolution, which generates sets of interoperable domains that may enable predictable domain swapping. Finally, many biosynthetic gene clusters evolve in family-specific modes that differ greatly from each other. Overall, this quantitative perspective on the ways in which gene clusters naturally evolve suggests novel strategies for using synthetic biology to engineer the production of unnatural metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marnix H. Medema
- Department of Microbial Physiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
- Groningen Bioinformatics Centre, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Peter Cimermancic
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Andrej Sali
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Eriko Takano
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Michael A. Fischbach
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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29
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Rui Z, Ye M, Wang S, Fujikawa K, Akerele B, Aung M, Floss HG, Zhang W, Yu TW. Insights into a divergent phenazine biosynthetic pathway governed by a plasmid-born esmeraldin gene cluster. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 19:1116-25. [PMID: 22999880 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2012.07.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2011] [Revised: 07/20/2012] [Accepted: 07/24/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Phenazine-type metabolites arise from either phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA) or phenazine-1,6-dicarboxylic acid (PDC). Although the biosynthesis of PCA has been studied extensively, PDC assembly remains unclear. Esmeraldins and saphenamycin, the PDC originated products, are antimicrobial and antitumor metabolites isolated from Streptomyces antibioticus Tü 2706. Herein, the esmeraldin biosynthetic gene cluster was identified on a dispensable giant plasmid. Twenty-four putative esm genes were characterized by bioinformatics, mutagenesis, genetic complementation, and functional protein expressions. Unlike enzymes involved in PCA biosynthesis, EsmA1 and EsmA2 together decisively promoted the PDC yield. The resulting PDC underwent a series of conversions to give 6-acetylphenazine-1-carboxylic acid, saphenic acid, and saphenamycin through a unique one-carbon extension by EsmB1-B5, a keto reduction by EsmC, and an esterification by EsmD1-D3, the atypical polyketide sythases, respectively. Two transcriptional regulators, EsmT1 and EsmT2, are required for esmeraldin production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Rui
- Department of Biological Science, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
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30
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Zhang Q, Pang B, Ding W, Liu W. Aromatic Polyketides Produced by Bacterial Iterative Type I Polyketide Synthases. ACS Catal 2013. [DOI: 10.1021/cs400211x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qi Zhang
- State Key
Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Bo Pang
- State Key
Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Wei Ding
- State Key
Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Wen Liu
- State Key
Laboratory of Bioorganic and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai 200032, China
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31
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Antimicrobial drug resistance affects broad changes in metabolomic phenotype in addition to secondary metabolism. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:2336-41. [PMID: 23341601 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1218524110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacteria develop resistance to many classes of antibiotics vertically, by engendering mutations in genes encoding transcriptional and translational apparatus. These severe adaptations affect global transcription, translation, and the correspondingly affected metabolism. Here, we characterize metabolome scale changes in transcriptional and translational mutants in a genomically characterized Nocardiopsis, a soil-derived actinomycete, in stationary phase. Analysis of ultra-performance liquid chromatography-ion mobility-mass spectrometry metabolomic features from a cohort of streptomycin- and rifampicin-resistant mutants grown in the absence of antibiotics exhibits clear metabolomic speciation, and loadings analysis catalogs a marked change in metabolic phenotype. Consistent with derepression, up to 311 features are observed in antibiotic-resistant mutants that are not detected in their progenitors. Mutants demonstrate changes in primary metabolism, such as modulation of fatty acid composition and the increased production of the osmoprotectant ectoine, in addition to the presence of abundant emergent potential secondary metabolites. Isolation of three of these metabolites followed by structure elucidation demonstrates them to be an unusual polyketide family with a previously uncharacterized xanthene framework resulting from sequential oxidative carbon skeletal rearrangements. Designated as "mutaxanthenes," this family can be correlated to a type II polyketide gene cluster in the producing organism. Taken together, these data suggest that biosynthetic pathway derepression is a general consequence of some antibiotic resistance mutations.
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Li W, Estrada-de los Santos P, Matthijs S, Xie GL, Busson R, Cornelis P, Rozenski J, De Mot R. Promysalin, a salicylate-containing Pseudomonas putida antibiotic, promotes surface colonization and selectively targets other Pseudomonas. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 18:1320-30. [PMID: 22035801 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2011.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2009] [Revised: 06/15/2011] [Accepted: 08/02/2011] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Under control of the Gac regulatory system, Pseudomonas putida RW10S1 produces promysalin to promote its own swarming and biofilm formation, and to selectively inhibit many other pseudomonads, including the opportunistic pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa. This amphipathic antibiotic is composed of salicylic acid and 2,8-dihydroxymyristamide bridged by a unique 2-pyrroline-5-carboxyl moiety. In addition to enzymes for salicylic acid synthesis and activation, the biosynthetic gene cluster encodes divergent type II fatty acid biosynthesis components, unusual fatty acid-tailoring enzymes (two Rieske-type oxygenases and an amidotransferase), an enzyme resembling a proline-loading module of nonribosomal peptide synthetases, and the first prokaryotic member of the BAHD family of plant acyltransferases. Identification of biosynthetic intermediates enabled to propose a pathway for synthesis of this bacterial colonization factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Li
- Centre of Microbial and Plant Genetics, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Heverlee-Leuven 3001, Belgium
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33
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Characterization of the amicetin biosynthesis gene cluster from Streptomyces vinaceusdrappus NRRL 2363 implicates two alternative strategies for amide bond formation. Appl Environ Microbiol 2012; 78:2393-401. [PMID: 22267658 DOI: 10.1128/aem.07185-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Amicetin, an antibacterial and antiviral agent, belongs to a group of disaccharide nucleoside antibiotics featuring an α-(1→4)-glycoside bond in the disaccharide moiety. In this study, the amicetin biosynthesis gene cluster was cloned from Streptomyces vinaceusdrappus NRRL 2363 and localized on a 37-kb contiguous DNA region. Heterologous expression of the amicetin biosynthesis gene cluster in Streptomyces lividans TK64 resulted in the production of amicetin and its analogues, thereby confirming the identity of the ami gene cluster. In silico sequence analysis revealed that 21 genes were putatively involved in amicetin biosynthesis, including 3 for regulation and transportation, 10 for disaccharide biosynthesis, and 8 for the formation of the amicetin skeleton by the linkage of cytosine, p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), and the terminal (+)-α-methylserine moieties. The inactivation of the benzoate coenzyme A (benzoate-CoA) ligase gene amiL and the N-acetyltransferase gene amiF led to two mutants that accumulated the same two compounds, cytosamine and 4-acetamido-3-hydroxybenzoic acid. These data indicated that AmiF functioned as an amide synthethase to link cytosine and PABA. The inactivation of amiR, encoding an acyl-CoA-acyl carrier protein transacylase, resulted in the production of plicacetin and norplicacetin, indicating AmiR to be responsible for attachment of the terminal methylserine moiety to form another amide bond. These findings implicated two alternative strategies for amide bond formation in amicetin biosynthesis.
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34
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A ketosynthase homolog uses malonyl units to form esters in cervimycin biosynthesis. Nat Chem Biol 2011; 8:154-61. [DOI: 10.1038/nchembio.746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2011] [Accepted: 10/05/2011] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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35
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Biosynthetic gene cluster for the cladoniamides, bis-indoles with a rearranged scaffold. PLoS One 2011; 6:e23694. [PMID: 21876764 PMCID: PMC3158105 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0023694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2011] [Accepted: 07/22/2011] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The cladoniamides are bis-indole alkaloids isolated from Streptomyces uncialis, a lichen-associated actinomycete strain. The cladoniamides have an unusual, indenotryptoline structure rarely observed among bis-indole alkaloids. I report here the isolation, sequencing, and annotation of the cladoniamide biosynthetic gene cluster and compare it to the recently published gene cluster for BE-54017, a closely related indenotryptoline natural product. The cladoniamide gene cluster differs from the BE-54017 gene cluster in gene organization and in the absence of one N-methyltransferase gene but otherwise contains close homologs to all genes in the BE-54017 cluster. Both gene clusters encode enzymes needed for the construction of an indolocarbazole core, as well as flavin-dependent enzymes putatively involved in generating the indenotryptoline scaffold from an indolocarbazole. These two bis-indolic gene clusters exemplify the diversity of biosynthetic routes that begin from the oxidative dimerization of two molecules of l-tryptophan, highlight enzymes for further study, and provide new opportunities for combinatorial engineering.
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36
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Ling J, Horsman GP, Huang SX, Luo Y, Lin S, Shen B. Enediyne antitumor antibiotic maduropeptin biosynthesis featuring a C-methyltransferase that acts on a CoA-tethered aromatic substrate. J Am Chem Soc 2011; 132:12534-6. [PMID: 20718468 DOI: 10.1021/ja1050814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The enediyne antitumor antibiotic maduropeptin (MDP) is produced by Actinomadura madurae ATCC 39144. The biosynthetic pathway for the 3,6-dimethylsalicylic acid moiety of the MDP chromophore is proposed to be comprised of four enzymes: MdpB, MdpB1, MdpB2, and MdpB3. Based on the previously characterized biosynthesis of the naphthoic acid moiety of neocarzinostatin (NCS), we expected a biosynthetic pathway featuring carboxylic acid activation by the MdpB2 CoA ligase immediately before its coupling to an enediyne core intermediate. Surprisingly, the MDP aromatic acid biosynthetic pathway employs an unusual logic in which MdpB2-catalyzed CoA activation occurs before MdpB1-catalyzed C-methylation, demonstrating that MdpB1 is apparently unique in its ability to C-methylate a CoA-tethered aromatic acid. MdpB2 is a promiscuous CoA ligase capable of activating a variety of salicylic acid analogues, a property that could be potentially exploited to engineer MDP analogues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianya Ling
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, USA
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37
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Cloning of the biosynthetic gene cluster for naphthoxanthene antibiotic FD-594 from Streptomyces sp. TA-0256. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 2010; 64:123-32. [DOI: 10.1038/ja.2010.145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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38
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Crnovcić I, Süssmuth R, Keller U. Aromatic C-methyltransferases with antipodal stereoselectivity for structurally diverse phenolic amino acids catalyze the methylation step in the biosynthesis of the actinomycin chromophore. Biochemistry 2010; 49:9698-705. [PMID: 20945860 DOI: 10.1021/bi101422r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The actinomycin biosynthetic gene cluster of Streptomyces chrysomallus harbors two paralogous genes, acmI and acmL, encoding methyltransferases. To unveil their suspected role in the formation of 3-hydroxy-4-methyl-anthranilic acid (4-MHA), the building block of the actinomycin chromophore, each gene was expressed in Escherichia coli. Testing the resulting ∼40 kDa His(6)-tagged proteins with compounds of biogenetic relevance as substrates and S-adenosyl-l-methionine revealed that each exclusively methylated 3-hydroxykynurenine (3-HK) with formation of 3-hydroxy-4-methylkynurenine (4-MHK) identified by its in vitro conversion to 4-MHA with hydroxykynureninase. AcmI and AcmL methylate also hydroxyphenyl-amino propanoic acids such as p-tyrosine, m-tyrosine, or 3,4-dihydroxy-l-phenylalanine (DOPA) but at a lower rate than 3-HK. The presence of the α-amino group was necessary for substrate recognition. Phenolic acids with shorter chains such as 4-hydoxyphenyl-l-glycine (HPG), 3-hydroxybenzoic acid (3-HB), or 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid (3-HA) gave no product. Both enzymes were stereospecific for the optical configuration at α-C with unprecedented antipodal selectivity for the d-enantiomer of 3-HK and the l-enantiomer of p-tyrosine or m-tyrosine. AcmI and AcmL show sequence similarity to various C- and O-methyltransferases from bacteria. Phylogenetic analysis places them into the clade of C-methyltransferases comprising among others orthologues involved in 4-MHA formation of other biosynthesis systems and methyltransferases putatively involved in the C-methylation of tyrosine. Remarkably, computational remodelling of AcmI and AcmL structures revealed significant similarity with the 3-D structures of type 1 O-methyltransferases from plants such as caffeic acid O-methyltransferase (COMT) and other phenylpropanoid methyltransferases. The relevance of 3-HK or 3-HA methylation in the actinomycin biosynthesis pathways of different actinomycetes is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Crnovcić
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Arbeitsgruppe Biochemie und Molekulare Biologie, Franklinstrasse 29, D-10587 Berlin-Charlottenburg, Germany
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Abstract
Oxytetracycline (OTC) is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that acts by inhibiting protein synthesis in bacteria. It is an important member of the bacterial aromatic polyketide family, which is a structurally diverse class of natural products. OTC is synthesized by a type II polyketide synthase that generates the poly-beta-ketone backbone through successive decarboxylative condensation of malonyl-CoA extender units, followed by modifications by cyclases, oxygenases, transferases, and additional tailoring enzymes. Genetic and biochemical studies have illuminated most of the steps involved in the biosynthesis of OTC, which is detailed here as a representative case study in type II polyketide biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren B. Pickens
- From the Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Yi Tang
- From the Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095
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Ding W, Lei C, He Q, Zhang Q, Bi Y, Liu W. Insights into Bacterial 6-Methylsalicylic Acid Synthase and Its Engineering to Orsellinic Acid Synthase for Spirotetronate Generation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 17:495-503. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2010.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2009] [Revised: 03/31/2010] [Accepted: 04/01/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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41
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Zhou H, Li Y, Tang Y. Cyclization of aromatic polyketides from bacteria and fungi. Nat Prod Rep 2010; 27:839-68. [PMID: 20358042 DOI: 10.1039/b911518h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hui Zhou
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Los Angles, 420 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA
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Ding W, Deng W, Tang M, Zhang Q, Tang G, Bi Y, Liu W. Biosynthesis of 3-methoxy-5-methyl naphthoic acid and its incorporation into the antitumor antibiotic azinomycin B. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2010; 6:1071-81. [PMID: 20485749 DOI: 10.1039/b926358f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Azinomycin B is a potent antitumor antibiotic that features a set of unusual, densely assembled functionalities. Among them, the 3-methoxy-5-methylnaphthoic acid (NPA) moiety provides an important noncovalent association with DNA, and may, therefore, contribute to the specificity of DNA alkylation for biological activity exhibition. We have previously cloned and sequenced the azinomycin B biosynthetic gene cluster, and proposed that four enzymes: AziB, AziB1, AziB2, and AziA1, are involved in the naphthoate moiety formation and incorporation. In this study, we report in vivo and/or in vitro characterizations of the P450 hydroxylase AziB1, the O-methyltransferase AziB2, and the substrate specificity of the non-ribosomal peptide synthetase (NRPS) AziA1, providing insights into the timing of individual steps in the late-stage modification of 5-methyl-NPA synthesized by the iterative type I polyketide synthase AziB. AziB1 catalyzes a regiospecific hydroxylation at the C3 position of the free naphthoic acid 5-methyl-NPA to produce 3-hydroxy-5-methyl-NPA, and the resulting hydroxyl group is subsequently O-methylated by AziB2 to furnish the methoxy functionality. The di-domain NRPS AziA1 specifically incorporates 3-methoxy-5-methyl-NPA via an unusual A domain to initiate the backbone formation of azinomycin B. AziA1 activates several analogues of the natural starter unit, suggesting a potential for production by metabolic engineering of new azinomycin analogues differing in their NPA moieties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Ding
- School of Life Science, Lanzhou University, 222 South Tianshui Rd, Lanzhou 730000, China
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Pickens LB, Kim W, Wang P, Zhou H, Watanabe K, Gomi S, Tang Y. Biochemical analysis of the biosynthetic pathway of an anticancer tetracycline SF2575. J Am Chem Soc 2010; 131:17677-89. [PMID: 19908837 DOI: 10.1021/ja907852c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
SF2575 1 is a tetracycline polyketide produced by Streptomyces sp. SF2575 and displays exceptionally potent anticancer activity toward a broad range of cancer cell lines. The structure of SF2575 is characterized by a highly substituted tetracycline aglycon. The modifications include methylation of the C-6 and C-12a hydroxyl groups, acylation of the 4-(S)-hydroxyl with salicylic acid, C-glycosylation of the C-9 of the D-ring with D-olivose and further acylation of the C4'-hydroxyl of D-olivose with the unusual angelic acid. Understanding the biosynthesis of SF2575 can therefore expand the repertoire of enzymes that can modify tetracyclines, and facilitate engineered biosynthesis of SF2575 analogues. In this study, we identified, sequenced, and functionally analyzed the ssf biosynthetic gene cluster which contains 40 putative open reading frames. Genes encoding enzymes that can assemble the tetracycline aglycon, as well as installing these unique structural features, are found in the gene cluster. Biosynthetic intermediates were isolated from the SF2575 culture extract to suggest the order of pendant-group addition is C-9 glycosylation, C-4 salicylation, and O-4' angelylcylation. Using in vitro assays, two enzymes that are responsible for C-4 acylation of salicylic acid were identified. These enzymes include an ATP-dependent salicylyl-CoA ligase SsfL1 and a putative GDSL family acyltransferase SsfX3, both of which were shown to have relaxed substrate specificity toward substituted benzoic acids. Since the salicylic acid moiety is critically important for the anticancer properties of SF2575, verification of the activities of SsfL1 and SsfX3 sets the stage for biosynthetic modification of the C-4 group toward structure-activity relationship studies of SF2575. Using heterologous biosynthesis in Streptomyces lividans, we also determined that biosynthesis of the SF2575 tetracycline aglycon 8 parallels that of oxytetracycline 4 and diverges after the assembly of 4-keto-anhydrotetracycline 51. The minimal ssf polyketide synthase together with the amidotransferase SsfD produced the amidated decaketide backbone that is required for the formation of 2-naphthacenecarboxamide skeleton. Additional enzymes, such as cyclases C-6 methyltransferase and C-4/C-12a dihydroxylase, were functionally reconstituted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren B Pickens
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Los Angeles, USA
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Olano C, Méndez C, Salas JA. Post-PKS tailoring steps in natural product-producing actinomycetes from the perspective of combinatorial biosynthesis. Nat Prod Rep 2010; 27:571-616. [DOI: 10.1039/b911956f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Doubly carbon-branched pentoses: synthesis of both enantiomers of 2,4-di-C-methyl arabinose and 2-deoxy-2,4-di-C-methyl arabinose using only acetonide protection. Tetrahedron Lett 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2009.06.098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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