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Redondo-Gómez C, Parreira P, Martins MCL, Azevedo HS. Peptide-based self-assembled monolayers (SAMs): what peptides can do for SAMs and vice versa. Chem Soc Rev 2024; 53:3714-3773. [PMID: 38456490 DOI: 10.1039/d3cs00921a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) represent highly ordered molecular materials with versatile biochemical features and multidisciplinary applications. Research on SAMs has made much progress since the early begginings of Au substrates and alkanethiols, and numerous examples of peptide-displaying SAMs can be found in the literature. Peptides, presenting increasing structural complexity, stimuli-responsiveness, and biological relevance, represent versatile functional components in SAMs-based platforms. This review examines the major findings and progress made on the use of peptide building blocks displayed as part of SAMs with specific functions, such as selective cell adhesion, migration and differentiation, biomolecular binding, advanced biosensing, molecular electronics, antimicrobial, osteointegrative and antifouling surfaces, among others. Peptide selection and design, functionalisation strategies, as well as structural and functional characteristics from selected examples are discussed. Additionally, advanced fabrication methods for dynamic peptide spatiotemporal presentation are presented, as well as a number of characterisation techniques. All together, these features and approaches enable the preparation and use of increasingly complex peptide-based SAMs to mimic and study biological processes, and provide convergent platforms for high throughput screening discovery and validation of promising therapeutics and technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Redondo-Gómez
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, Porto, 4200-135, Portugal.
- INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, Porto, 4200-135, Portugal
| | - Paula Parreira
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, Porto, 4200-135, Portugal.
- INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, Porto, 4200-135, Portugal
| | - M Cristina L Martins
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, Porto, 4200-135, Portugal.
- INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, Porto, 4200-135, Portugal
- ICBAS - Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar, Universidade do Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Helena S Azevedo
- i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, Porto, 4200-135, Portugal.
- INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, Universidade do Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, Porto, 4200-135, Portugal
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2
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Wu L, Tian X, Groleau RR, Wang J, Han HH, Reeksting SB, Sedgwick AC, He XP, Bull SD, James TD. Coumarin-based fluorescent probe for the rapid detection of peroxynitrite ‘AND’ biological thiols. RSC Adv 2020; 10:13496-13499. [PMID: 35493005 PMCID: PMC9051425 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra02234a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
A coumarin-based novel ‘AND’ logic fluorescent probe ROS-AHC has been developed for the simultaneous detection of ONOO− and biological thiols. ROS-AHC was shown to exhibit only a very small fluorescence response upon addition of a single GSH or ONOO− analyte. Exposure to both analytes, however, resulted in a significant fluorescence enhancement. A coumarin-based novel ‘AND’ logic fluorescent probe ROS-AHC has been developed for the simultaneous detection of ONOO− and biological thiols.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Luling Wu
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Bath
- Bath
- UK
| | - Xue Tian
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Bath
- Bath
- UK
| | | | - Jie Wang
- Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials and Joint International Research Laboratory of Precision Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
- Feringa Nobel Prize Scientist Joint Research Center
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
- East China University of Science and Technology
- Shanghai 200237
| | - Hai-Hao Han
- Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials and Joint International Research Laboratory of Precision Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
- Feringa Nobel Prize Scientist Joint Research Center
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
- East China University of Science and Technology
- Shanghai 200237
| | - Shaun B. Reeksting
- Materials and Chemical Characterization (MC2)
- University of Bath
- Bath BA2 7AY
- UK
| | | | - Xiao-Peng He
- Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials and Joint International Research Laboratory of Precision Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
- Feringa Nobel Prize Scientist Joint Research Center
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering
- East China University of Science and Technology
- Shanghai 200237
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3
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Veerbeek J, Steen R, Vijselaar W, Rurup WF, Korom S, Rozzi A, Corradini R, Segerink L, Huskens J. Selective Functionalization with PNA of Silicon Nanowires on Silicon Oxide Substrates. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2018; 34:11395-11404. [PMID: 30179484 PMCID: PMC6158678 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.8b02401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2018] [Revised: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Silicon nanowire chips can function as sensors for cancer DNA detection, whereby selective functionalization of the Si sensing areas over the surrounding silicon oxide would prevent loss of analyte and thus increase the sensitivity. The thermal hydrosilylation of unsaturated carbon-carbon bonds onto H-terminated Si has been studied here to selectively functionalize the Si nanowires with a monolayer of 1,8-nonadiyne. The silicon oxide areas, however, appeared to be functionalized as well. The selectivity toward the Si-H regions was increased by introducing an extra HF treatment after the 1,8-nonadiyne monolayer formation. This step (partly) removed the monolayer from the silicon oxide regions, whereas the Si-C bonds at the Si areas remained intact. The alkyne headgroups of immobilized 1,8-nonadiyne were functionalized with PNA probes by coupling azido-PNA and thiol-PNA by click chemistry and thiol-yne chemistry, respectively. Although both functionalization routes were successful, hybridization could only be detected on the samples with thiol-PNA. No fluorescence was observed when introducing dye-labeled noncomplementary DNA, which indicates specific DNA hybridization. These results open up the possibilities for creating Si nanowire-based DNA sensors with improved selectivity and sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janneke Veerbeek
- Molecular NanoFabrication group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, and BIOS Lab on a
Chip group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, TechMed Centre and
Max Planck Center for Complex Fluid Dynamics, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Raymond Steen
- Molecular NanoFabrication group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, and BIOS Lab on a
Chip group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, TechMed Centre and
Max Planck Center for Complex Fluid Dynamics, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Wouter Vijselaar
- Molecular NanoFabrication group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, and BIOS Lab on a
Chip group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, TechMed Centre and
Max Planck Center for Complex Fluid Dynamics, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - W. Frederik Rurup
- Molecular NanoFabrication group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, and BIOS Lab on a
Chip group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, TechMed Centre and
Max Planck Center for Complex Fluid Dynamics, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Saša Korom
- Department
of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 17/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Andrea Rozzi
- Department
of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 17/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Roberto Corradini
- Department
of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 17/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
| | - Loes Segerink
- Molecular NanoFabrication group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, and BIOS Lab on a
Chip group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, TechMed Centre and
Max Planck Center for Complex Fluid Dynamics, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Jurriaan Huskens
- Molecular NanoFabrication group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, and BIOS Lab on a
Chip group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, TechMed Centre and
Max Planck Center for Complex Fluid Dynamics, University of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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4
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Liu G, Hu J, Liu S. Emerging Applications of Fluorogenic and Non-fluorogenic Bifunctional Linkers. Chemistry 2018; 24:16484-16505. [PMID: 29893499 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201801290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Homo- and hetero-bifunctional linkers play vital roles in constructing a variety of functional systems, ranging from protein bioconjugates with drugs and functional agents, to surface modification of nanoparticles and living cells, and to the cyclization/dimerization of synthetic polymers and biomolecules. Conventional approaches for assaying conjugation extents typically rely on ex situ techniques, such as mass spectrometry, gel electrophoresis, and size-exclusion chromatography. If the conjugation process involving bifunctional linkers was rendered fluorogenic, then in situ monitoring, quantification, and optical tracking/visualization of relevant processes would be achieved. In this review, conventional non-fluorogenic linkers are first discussed. Then the focus is on the evolution and emerging applications of fluorogenic bifunctional linkers, which are categorized into hetero-bifunctional single-caging fluorogenic linkers, homo-bifunctional double-caging fluorogenic linkers, and hetero-bifunctional double-caging fluorogenic linkers. In addition, stimuli-cleavable bifunctional linkers designed for both conjugation and subsequent site-specific triggered release are also summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guhuan Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Soft Matter Chemistry, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the MicroscaleiChEM (Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials), Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, 96 Jinzhai Road, Hefei, Anhui, 230026, P.R. China
| | - Jinming Hu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Soft Matter Chemistry, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the MicroscaleiChEM (Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials), Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, 96 Jinzhai Road, Hefei, Anhui, 230026, P.R. China
| | - Shiyong Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Soft Matter Chemistry, Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at the MicroscaleiChEM (Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Materials), Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, 96 Jinzhai Road, Hefei, Anhui, 230026, P.R. China
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5
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Zhang S, Geryak R, Geldmeier J, Kim S, Tsukruk VV. Synthesis, Assembly, and Applications of Hybrid Nanostructures for Biosensing. Chem Rev 2017; 117:12942-13038. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 206] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shuaidi Zhang
- School of Materials Science
and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245, United States
| | - Ren Geryak
- School of Materials Science
and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245, United States
| | - Jeffrey Geldmeier
- School of Materials Science
and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245, United States
| | - Sunghan Kim
- School of Materials Science
and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245, United States
| | - Vladimir V. Tsukruk
- School of Materials Science
and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0245, United States
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6
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Vonhören B, Roling O, Buten C, Körsgen M, Arlinghaus HF, Ravoo BJ. Photochemical Microcontact Printing by Tetrazole Chemistry. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2016; 32:2277-2282. [PMID: 26886297 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.6b00059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
We developed a simple method to pattern self-assembled monolayers of tetrazole triethoxylsilane with a variety of different molecules by photochemical microcontact printing. Under irradiation, tetrazoles form highly reactive nitrile imines, which react with alkenes, alkynes, and thiols. The covalent linkage to the surface could be unambiguously demonstrated by fluorescence microscopy, because the reaction product is fluorescent in contrast to tetrazole. The modified surfaces were further analyzed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and contact angle goniometry. Protein-repellent micropatterns, a biotin-streptavidin array, and structured polymer brushes could be fabricated with this straightforward method for surface functionalization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Vonhören
- Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Center for Soft Nanoscience and Graduate School of Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster , Corrensstraße 40, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Oliver Roling
- Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Center for Soft Nanoscience and Graduate School of Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster , Corrensstraße 40, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Christoph Buten
- Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Center for Soft Nanoscience and Graduate School of Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster , Corrensstraße 40, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Martin Körsgen
- Physikalisches Institut, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster , Wilhelm-Klemm-Straße 10, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Heinrich F Arlinghaus
- Physikalisches Institut, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster , Wilhelm-Klemm-Straße 10, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Bart Jan Ravoo
- Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Center for Soft Nanoscience and Graduate School of Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster , Corrensstraße 40, 48149 Münster, Germany
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7
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Reactivity mapping with electrochemical gradients for monitoring reactivity at surfaces in space and time. Nat Commun 2013; 4:1667. [PMID: 23575671 PMCID: PMC3644076 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms2688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2012] [Accepted: 03/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Studying and controlling reactions at surfaces is of great fundamental and applied interest in, among others, biology, electronics and catalysis. Because reaction kinetics is different at surfaces compared with solution, frequently, solution-characterization techniques cannot be used. Here we report solution gradients, prepared by electrochemical means, for controlling and monitoring reactivity at surfaces in space and time. As a proof of principle, electrochemically derived gradients of a reaction parameter (pH) and of a catalyst (Cu(I)) have been employed to make surface gradients on the micron scale and to study the kinetics of the (surface-confined) imine hydrolysis and the copper(I)-catalysed azide-alkyne 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition, respectively. For both systems, the kinetic data were spatially visualized in a two-dimensional reactivity map. In the case of the copper(I)-catalysed azide-alkyne 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition, the reaction order (2) was deduced from it.
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8
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Nicosia C, Krabbenborg SO, Chen P, Huskens J. Shape-controlled fabrication of micron-scale surface chemical gradients via electrochemically activated copper(i) "click" chemistry. J Mater Chem B 2013; 1:5417-5428. [PMID: 32261248 DOI: 10.1039/c3tb20902d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
We report an electrochemical method for the shape-controlled fabrication of micron-scale surface-bound chemical gradients. The approach is based on employing platinum microelectrode arrays on glass for the establishment of a Cu(i) solution gradient via local electrochemical reduction of Cu(ii) (cathodic reaction), and oxidation of the generated Cu(i) back to Cu(ii) (anodic reaction), under ambient conditions. The Cu(i) solution gradient, in the presence of an alkyne in solution and an azide monolayer on the glass surface in between the platinum electrodes, is exploited for the surface-confined gradient fabrication via the Huisgen 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition (CuAAC). Owing to the high sensitivity of the CuAAC on the Cu(i) concentration, we demonstrate here the control of the shape of the micron-scale surface gradient, in terms of steepness and surface density, as a function of the reaction conditions. The surface gradients were assessed by fluorescence microscopy and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (Tof-SIMS). Moreover, bi-component and biomolecular gradients have been fabricated and a method for the electrochemically mediated patterning of surface chemical gradients on external azide-functionalized substrates has been developed for the implementation of bi-directional 2D surface gradients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Nicosia
- Molecular Nanofabrication group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands.
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9
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Nicosia C, Krabbenborg SO, Reinhoudt DN, Huskens J. In situ fluorimetric detection of micrometer-scale pH gradients at the solid/liquid interface. Supramol Chem 2013. [DOI: 10.1080/10610278.2013.814775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carlo Nicosia
- Molecular Nanofabrication group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Sven O. Krabbenborg
- Molecular Nanofabrication group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - David N. Reinhoudt
- Molecular Nanofabrication group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Jurriaan Huskens
- Molecular Nanofabrication group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands
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10
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Cabanas-Danés J, Nicosia C, Landman E, Karperien M, Huskens J, Jonkheijm P. A fluorogenic monolayer to detect the co-immobilization of peptides that combine cartilage targeting and regeneration. J Mater Chem B 2013; 1:1903-1908. [PMID: 32260903 DOI: 10.1039/c3tb20109k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Strategies to generate platforms combining tissue targeting and regeneration properties are in great demand in the regenerative medicine field. Here we employ an approach to directly visualize the immobilization of cysteine-terminated peptides on a novel fluorogenic surface. Peptides with relevant biological properties, CLPLGNSH and CLRGRYW, were synthesized to function as peptide binders to transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 and collagen type II (CII). The selective immobilization of the peptides was directly detected using a fluorogenic surface. Adhered proteins were confined to patterns of these peptides matching with the fluorogenic areas. These results show that the fluorogenic signal can be used to detect the chemo-selective immobilization of non-fluorescent biomolecules and to correlate the cell response with the patterned peptides. After analyzing the sequence specificity and cross-reactivity of the binding of TGF-β1 and CII to the respective peptide regions employing immunofluorescence assays, both peptides were co-immobilized in a step-wise process as detected by the fluorogenic surface. TGF-β1 and CII could be self-sorted from a mixture in a regio-selective manner resulting in a bi-functional protein platform. Surfaces of CLPLGNSH pre-loaded with TGF-β1 showed excellent bioactivity in combination with human articular chondrocytes (HACs) and stimulated expression of chondrogenic markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordi Cabanas-Danés
- Molecular Nanofabrication Group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology and Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands.
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11
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Wasserberg D, Nicosia C, Tromp EE, Subramaniam V, Huskens J, Jonkheijm P. Oriented Protein Immobilization using Covalent and Noncovalent Chemistry on a Thiol-Reactive Self-Reporting Surface. J Am Chem Soc 2013; 135:3104-11. [DOI: 10.1021/ja3102133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dorothee Wasserberg
- Molecular Nanofabrication Group,
MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Department of Science
and Technology, University of Twente, 7500
AE, Enschede, Netherlands
- Nanobiophysics Group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology
and MIRA Institute for Biomedical
Technology and Technical Medicine, Department of Science and Technology, University of Twente, 7500 AE, Enschede, Netherlands
| | - Carlo Nicosia
- Molecular Nanofabrication Group,
MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Department of Science
and Technology, University of Twente, 7500
AE, Enschede, Netherlands
| | - Eldrich E. Tromp
- Molecular Nanofabrication Group,
MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Department of Science
and Technology, University of Twente, 7500
AE, Enschede, Netherlands
- Nanobiophysics Group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology
and MIRA Institute for Biomedical
Technology and Technical Medicine, Department of Science and Technology, University of Twente, 7500 AE, Enschede, Netherlands
| | - Vinod Subramaniam
- Nanobiophysics Group, MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology
and MIRA Institute for Biomedical
Technology and Technical Medicine, Department of Science and Technology, University of Twente, 7500 AE, Enschede, Netherlands
| | - Jurriaan Huskens
- Molecular Nanofabrication Group,
MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Department of Science
and Technology, University of Twente, 7500
AE, Enschede, Netherlands
| | - Pascal Jonkheijm
- Molecular Nanofabrication Group,
MESA+ Institute for Nanotechnology, Department of Science
and Technology, University of Twente, 7500
AE, Enschede, Netherlands
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