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Jain N, Tamura K, Déjean G, Van Petegem F, Brumer H. Orthogonal Active-Site Labels for Mixed-Linkage endo-β-Glucanases. ACS Chem Biol 2021; 16:1968-1984. [PMID: 33988963 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.1c00063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Small molecule irreversible inhibitors are valuable tools for determining catalytically important active-site residues and revealing key details of the specificity, structure, and function of glycoside hydrolases (GHs). β-glucans that contain backbone β(1,3) linkages are widespread in nature, e.g., mixed-linkage β(1,3)/β(1,4)-glucans in the cell walls of higher plants and β(1,3)glucans in yeasts and algae. Commensurate with this ubiquity, a large diversity of mixed-linkage endoglucanases (MLGases, EC 3.2.1.73) and endo-β(1,3)-glucanases (laminarinases, EC 3.2.1.39 and EC 3.2.1.6) have evolved to specifically hydrolyze these polysaccharides, respectively, in environmental niches including the human gut. To facilitate biochemical and structural analysis of these GHs, with a focus on MLGases, we present here the facile chemo-enzymatic synthesis of a library of active-site-directed enzyme inhibitors based on mixed-linkage oligosaccharide scaffolds and N-bromoacetylglycosylamine or 2-fluoro-2-deoxyglycoside warheads. The effectiveness and irreversibility of these inhibitors were tested with exemplar MLGases and an endo-β(1,3)-glucanase. Notably, determination of inhibitor-bound crystal structures of a human-gut microbial MLGase from Glycoside Hydrolase Family 16 revealed the orthogonal labeling of the nucleophile and catalytic acid/base residues with homologous 2-fluoro-2-deoxyglycoside and N-bromoacetylglycosylamine inhibitors, respectively. We anticipate that the selectivity of these inhibitors will continue to enable the structural and mechanistic analyses of β-glucanases from diverse sources and protein families.
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Affiliation(s)
- Namrata Jain
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Kazune Tamura
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Guillaume Déjean
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Filip Van Petegem
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Harry Brumer
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
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Harvey DJ. ANALYSIS OF CARBOHYDRATES AND GLYCOCONJUGATES BY MATRIX-ASSISTED LASER DESORPTION/IONIZATION MASS SPECTROMETRY: AN UPDATE FOR 2015-2016. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2021; 40:408-565. [PMID: 33725404 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
This review is the ninth update of the original article published in 1999 on the application of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) mass spectrometry to the analysis of carbohydrates and glycoconjugates and brings coverage of the literature to the end of 2016. Also included are papers that describe methods appropriate to analysis by MALDI, such as sample preparation techniques, even though the ionization method is not MALDI. Topics covered in the first part of the review include general aspects such as theory of the MALDI process, matrices, derivatization, MALDI imaging, fragmentation and arrays. The second part of the review is devoted to applications to various structural types such as oligo- and poly-saccharides, glycoproteins, glycolipids, glycosides and biopharmaceuticals. Much of this material is presented in tabular form. The third part of the review covers medical and industrial applications of the technique, studies of enzyme reactions and applications to chemical synthesis. The reported work shows increasing use of combined new techniques such as ion mobility and the enormous impact that MALDI imaging is having. MALDI, although invented over 30 years ago is still an ideal technique for carbohydrate analysis and advancements in the technique and range of applications show no sign of deminishing. © 2020 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Harvey
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, Target Discovery Institute, University of Oxford, Roosevelt Drive, Oxford, OX3 7FZ, United Kingdom
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Pereira CS, Silveira RL, Skaf MS. QM/MM Simulations of Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Cellulose: Probing the Viability of an Endocyclic Mechanism for an Inverting Cellulase. J Chem Inf Model 2021; 61:1902-1912. [PMID: 33760586 PMCID: PMC8154253 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.0c01380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
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Glycoside hydrolases
(GH) cleave carbohydrate glycosidic bonds
and play pivotal roles in living organisms and in many industrial
processes. Unlike acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of carbohydrates in solution,
which can occur either via cyclic or acyclic oxocarbenium-like transition
states, it is widely accepted that GH-catalyzed hydrolysis proceeds
via a general acid mechanism involving a cyclic oxocarbenium-like
transition state with protonation of the glycosidic oxygen. The GH45
subfamily C inverting endoglucanase from Phanerochaete chrysosporium (PcCel45A) defies the classical inverting mechanism as its crystal
structure conspicuously lacks a general Asp or Glu base residue. Instead,
PcCel45A has an Asn residue, a notoriously weak base in solution,
as one of its catalytic residues at position 92. Moreover, unlike
other inverting GHs, the relative position of the catalytic residues
in PcCel45A impairs the proton abstraction from the nucleophilic water
that attacks the anomeric carbon, a key step in the classical mechanism.
Here, we investigate the viability of an endocyclic mechanism for
PcCel45A using hybrid quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM)
simulations, with the QM region treated with the self-consistent-charge
density-functional tight-binding level of theory. In this mechanism,
an acyclic oxocarbenium-like transition state is stabilized leading
to the opening of the glucopyranose ring and formation of an unstable
acyclic hemiacetal that can be readily decomposed into hydrolysis
product. In silico characterization of the Michaelis
complex shows that PcCel45A significantly restrains the sugar ring
to the 4C1 chair conformation at the −1
subsite of the substrate binding cleft, in contrast to the classical
exocyclic mechanism in which ring puckering is critical. We also show
that PcCel45A provides an environment where the catalytic Asn92 residue
in its standard amide form participates in a cooperative hydrogen
bond network resulting in its increased nucleophilicity due to an
increased negative charge on the oxygen atom. Our results for PcCel45A
suggest that carbohydrate hydrolysis catalyzed by GHs may take an
alternative route from the classical mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline S Pereira
- Institute of Chemistry and Center for Computing in Engineering and Sciences, University of Campinas-Unicamp, Campinas 13084-862, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo L Silveira
- Institute of Chemistry and Center for Computing in Engineering and Sciences, University of Campinas-Unicamp, Campinas 13084-862, Sao Paulo, Brazil.,Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-909, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Munir S Skaf
- Institute of Chemistry and Center for Computing in Engineering and Sciences, University of Campinas-Unicamp, Campinas 13084-862, Sao Paulo, Brazil
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4
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An overview of activity-based probes for glycosidases. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2019; 53:25-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2019.05.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Revised: 05/21/2019] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Jain N, Attia MA, Offen WA, Davies GJ, Brumer H. Synthesis and application of a highly branched, mechanism-based 2-deoxy-2-fluoro-oligosaccharide inhibitor of endo-xyloglucanases. Org Biomol Chem 2018; 16:8732-8741. [DOI: 10.1039/c8ob02250j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Xyloglucan (XyG) is a complex polysaccharide that is ubiquitous and often abundant in the cell walls of terrestrial plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Namrata Jain
- Michael Smith Laboratories
- University of British Columbia
- Vancouver
- Canada
- Department of Chemistry
| | - Mohamed A. Attia
- Michael Smith Laboratories
- University of British Columbia
- Vancouver
- Canada
- Department of Chemistry
| | | | | | - Harry Brumer
- Michael Smith Laboratories
- University of British Columbia
- Vancouver
- Canada
- Department of Chemistry
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Attia MA, Nelson CE, Offen WA, Jain N, Davies GJ, Gardner JG, Brumer H. In vitro and in vivo characterization of three Cellvibrio japonicus glycoside hydrolase family 5 members reveals potent xyloglucan backbone-cleaving functions. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2018; 11:45. [PMID: 29467823 PMCID: PMC5816542 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-018-1039-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2017] [Accepted: 02/01/2018] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Xyloglucan (XyG) is a ubiquitous and fundamental polysaccharide of plant cell walls. Due to its structural complexity, XyG requires a combination of backbone-cleaving and sidechain-debranching enzymes for complete deconstruction into its component monosaccharides. The soil saprophyte Cellvibrio japonicus has emerged as a genetically tractable model system to study biomass saccharification, in part due to its innate capacity to utilize a wide range of plant polysaccharides for growth. Whereas the downstream debranching enzymes of the xyloglucan utilization system of C. japonicus have been functionally characterized, the requisite backbone-cleaving endo-xyloglucanases were unresolved. RESULTS Combined bioinformatic and transcriptomic analyses implicated three glycoside hydrolase family 5 subfamily 4 (GH5_4) members, with distinct modular organization, as potential keystone endo-xyloglucanases in C. japonicus. Detailed biochemical and enzymatic characterization of the GH5_4 modules of all three recombinant proteins confirmed particularly high specificities for the XyG polysaccharide versus a panel of other cell wall glycans, including mixed-linkage beta-glucan and cellulose. Moreover, product analysis demonstrated that all three enzymes generated XyG oligosaccharides required for subsequent saccharification by known exo-glycosidases. Crystallographic analysis of GH5D, which was the only GH5_4 member specifically and highly upregulated during growth on XyG, in free, product-complex, and active-site affinity-labelled forms revealed the molecular basis for the exquisite XyG specificity among these GH5_4 enzymes. Strikingly, exhaustive reverse-genetic analysis of all three GH5_4 members and a previously biochemically characterized GH74 member failed to reveal a growth defect, thereby indicating functional compensation in vivo, both among members of this cohort and by other, yet unidentified, xyloglucanases in C. japonicus. Our systems-based analysis indicates distinct substrate-sensing (GH74, GH5E, GH5F) and attack-mounting (GH5D) functions for the endo-xyloglucanases characterized here. CONCLUSIONS Through a multi-faceted, molecular systems-based approach, this study provides a new insight into the saccharification pathway of xyloglucan utilization system of C. japonicus. The detailed structural-functional characterization of three distinct GH5_4 endo-xyloglucanases will inform future bioinformatic predictions across species, and provides new CAZymes with defined specificity that may be harnessed in industrial and other biotechnological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed A. Attia
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4 Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1 Canada
| | - Cassandra E. Nelson
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD 21250 USA
| | - Wendy A. Offen
- Department of Chemistry, University of York, Heslington, York, YO10 5DD UK
| | - Namrata Jain
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4 Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1 Canada
| | - Gideon J. Davies
- Department of Chemistry, University of York, Heslington, York, YO10 5DD UK
| | - Jeffrey G. Gardner
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Maryland, Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD 21250 USA
| | - Harry Brumer
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4 Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z1 Canada
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z3 Canada
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, 6270 University Blvd., Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4 Canada
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Rashmi
- Institute of Bioinformatics and Applied Biotechnology, Bengaluru, India
| | - K. R. Siddalingamurthy
- Department of Biochemistry, Jnanabharathi Campus, Bangalore University, Bengaluru, India
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8
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Affiliation(s)
- You Yang
- Shanghai
Key Laboratory of New Drug Design, School of Pharmacy, East China University of Science and Technology, 130 Meilong Road, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Biao Yu
- State
Key Laboratory of Bio-organic and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai
Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Road, Shanghai 200032, China
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9
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Villadsen K, Martos-Maldonado MC, Jensen KJ, Thygesen MB. Chemoselective Reactions for the Synthesis of Glycoconjugates from Unprotected Carbohydrates. Chembiochem 2017; 18:574-612. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201600582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Villadsen
- Department of Chemistry; University of Copenhagen; Faculty of Science; Thorvaldsensvej 40 1871 Frederiksberg C Denmark
| | - Manuel C. Martos-Maldonado
- Department of Chemistry; University of Copenhagen; Faculty of Science; Thorvaldsensvej 40 1871 Frederiksberg C Denmark
| | - Knud J. Jensen
- Department of Chemistry; University of Copenhagen; Faculty of Science; Thorvaldsensvej 40 1871 Frederiksberg C Denmark
| | - Mikkel B. Thygesen
- Department of Chemistry; University of Copenhagen; Faculty of Science; Thorvaldsensvej 40 1871 Frederiksberg C Denmark
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10
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McGregor N, Yin V, Tung CC, Van Petegem F, Brumer H. Crystallographic insight into the evolutionary origins of xyloglucan endotransglycosylases and endohydrolases. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2017; 89:651-670. [PMID: 27859885 PMCID: PMC5315667 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.13421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2016] [Revised: 10/14/2016] [Accepted: 11/04/2016] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The xyloglucan endotransglycosylase/hydrolase (XTH) gene family encodes enzymes of central importance to plant cell wall remodeling. The evolutionary history of plant XTH gene products is incompletely understood vis-à-vis the larger body of bacterial endoglycanases in Glycoside Hydrolase Family 16 (GH16). To provide molecular insight into this issue, high-resolution X-ray crystal structures and detailed enzyme kinetics of an extant transitional plant endoglucanase (EG) were determined. Functionally intermediate between plant XTH gene products and bacterial licheninases of GH16, Vitis vinifera EG16 (VvEG16) effectively catalyzes the hydrolysis of the backbones of two dominant plant cell wall matrix glycans, xyloglucan (XyG) and β(1,3)/β(1,4)-mixed-linkage glucan (MLG). Crystallographic complexes with extended oligosaccharide substrates reveal the structural basis for the accommodation of both unbranched, mixed-linked (MLG) and highly decorated, linear (XyG) polysaccharide chains in a broad, extended active-site cleft. Structural comparison with representative bacterial licheninases, a xyloglucan endotranglycosylase (XET), and a xyloglucan endohydrolase (XEH) outline the functional ramifications of key sequence deletions and insertions across the phylogenetic landscape of GH16. Although the biological role(s) of EG16 orthologs remains to be fully resolved, the present biochemical and tertiary structural characterization provides key insight into plant cell wall enzyme evolution, which will continue to inform genomic analyses and functional studies across species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas McGregor
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia,
2185 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia,
2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Victor Yin
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia,
2185 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia,
2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Ching-Chieh Tung
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology,
University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, British
Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Filip Van Petegem
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology,
University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, British
Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - Harry Brumer
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia,
2185 East Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia,
2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z1, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology,
University of British Columbia, 2350 Health Sciences Mall, Vancouver, British
Columbia V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, 6270
University Boulevard, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
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McGregor N, Morar M, Fenger TH, Stogios P, Lenfant N, Yin V, Xu X, Evdokimova E, Cui H, Henrissat B, Savchenko A, Brumer H. Structure-Function Analysis of a Mixed-linkage β-Glucanase/Xyloglucanase from the Key Ruminal Bacteroidetes Prevotella bryantii B(1)4. J Biol Chem 2015; 291:1175-97. [PMID: 26507654 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.691659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The recent classification of glycoside hydrolase family 5 (GH5) members into subfamilies enhances the prediction of substrate specificity by phylogenetic analysis. However, the small number of well characterized members is a current limitation to understanding the molecular basis of the diverse specificity observed across individual GH5 subfamilies. GH5 subfamily 4 (GH5_4) is one of the largest, with known activities comprising (carboxymethyl)cellulases, mixed-linkage endo-glucanases, and endo-xyloglucanases. Through detailed structure-function analysis, we have revisited the characterization of a classic GH5_4 carboxymethylcellulase, PbGH5A (also known as Orf4, carboxymethylcellulase, and Cel5A), from the symbiotic rumen Bacteroidetes Prevotella bryantii B14. We demonstrate that carboxymethylcellulose and phosphoric acid-swollen cellulose are in fact relatively poor substrates for PbGH5A, which instead exhibits clear primary specificity for the plant storage and cell wall polysaccharide, mixed-linkage β-glucan. Significant activity toward the plant cell wall polysaccharide xyloglucan was also observed. Determination of PbGH5A crystal structures in the apo-form and in complex with (xylo)glucan oligosaccharides and an active-site affinity label, together with detailed kinetic analysis using a variety of well defined oligosaccharide substrates, revealed the structural determinants of polysaccharide substrate specificity. In particular, this analysis highlighted the PbGH5A active-site motifs that engender predominant mixed-linkage endo-glucanase activity vis à vis predominant endo-xyloglucanases in GH5_4. However the detailed phylogenetic analysis of GH5_4 members did not delineate particular clades of enzymes sharing these sequence motifs; the phylogeny was instead dominated by bacterial taxonomy. Nonetheless, our results provide key enzyme functional and structural reference data for future bioinformatics analyses of (meta)genomes to elucidate the biology of complex gut ecosystems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas McGregor
- From the Michael Smith Laboratories and Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Mariya Morar
- the Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L6, Canada
| | - Thomas Hauch Fenger
- From the Michael Smith Laboratories and Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Peter Stogios
- the Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L6, Canada
| | - Nicolas Lenfant
- the Architecture et Fonction des Macromolécules Biologiques, CNRS, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille 13288, France
| | - Victor Yin
- From the Michael Smith Laboratories and Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Xiaohui Xu
- the Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L6, Canada
| | - Elena Evdokimova
- the Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L6, Canada
| | - Hong Cui
- the Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L6, Canada
| | - Bernard Henrissat
- the Architecture et Fonction des Macromolécules Biologiques, CNRS, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille 13288, France, the Department of Biological Sciences, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia, and INRA, USC 1408 AFMB, F-13288 Marseille, France
| | - Alexei Savchenko
- the Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L6, Canada,
| | - Harry Brumer
- From the Michael Smith Laboratories and Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia V6T 1Z4, Canada,
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