Corn distillers dried grains with solubles: Production, properties, and potential uses

Effects of deoxynivalenol contaminated corn distiller's dried grains with solubles on growth performance, body composition, immunological response, and gastrointestinal health in young pullets

Mycotoxins, particularly deoxynivalenol (DON), are common contaminants in feed ingredients such as corn distiller's dried grains with solubles (DDGS) and pose significant risks to poultry health. This study investigated the effects of feeding naturally DON contaminated DDGS on growth performance, body composition, immunological response, and gastrointestinal health in young pullets. A total of 360, 4-week-old Hy-Line W36 pullets were randomly assigned to diets with increasing levels of naturally DON contaminated DDGS (0, 5, 10, 15, and 20%) over 28 days, resulting in dietary DON concentrations ranging from below the limit of quantification to 15.4 ppm. Diets with DON concentration exceeding 8.9 ppm, corresponding to 15% and 20% DDGS inclusion, resulted in significantly lower body weight gain (BWG) and feed intake (FI) from experimental day 14 to day 28 compared to DON concentration below 5.9 ppm (0, 5 and 10% DDGS groups; P = 0.024 and P = 0.007, respectively). Body composition analysis showed a higher tissue fat percentage in the 20% DDGS group (15.4 ppm DON) by day 28 compared to lower inclusion levels (P = 0.021). Immunologically, a significant increase in the CD4+:CD8+ ratio in spleen was observed in the 20% DDGS group compared to the 0% DDGS group (P = 0.013), whereas both 15 and 20% DDGS inclusion levels significantly increased the ratio in cecal tonsil (P < 0.001). Additionally, interleukin 1β (IL-1β) expression significantly increased in the cecal tonsil by day 28 with 15 and 20% DDGS inclusions (P = 0.002). Gut health was compromised as gut permeability increased linearly with increasing DDGS inclusion (linear, P = 0.043), aligning with significant alterations in the expression of the tight junction protein occludin (OCLN; P = 0.007). Antioxidant responses in the liver showed increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity in early exposure (day 13, P = 0.038), followed by decreased SOD activity (P = 0.001) and reduced glutathione (GSH) levels (P < 0.001) by day 28. In conclusion, feeding DON-contaminated DDGS at higher inclusion levels (15% and 20%) with final diet DON concentrations exceeding 8.9 ppm over 28 days adversely affects growth performance, immune function, and gut integrity in young pullets.

Variability in Distillers' Co-Product Compositions and Their Nutritional Availability for Pigs: Insights from a Systematic Literature Review

This study aimed to examine the nutritional diversity of distillers' co-products in pigs. Two distinct databases were used in this study. The first was compiled through a systematic review of previous scientific publications that have evaluated the chemical composition and nutritional availability of these ingredients for pigs. The final database included information collected from 49 studies published between 2003 and 2022. Most of the studies focused on distillers' co-products produced from corn (90%) and assessed dried distillers grains with solubles (DDGS; 92%). A wide variety of nutritional compositions was observed in the selected studies, with coefficients of variation of 8% for gross energy and 13% for crude protein in dried distillers grains (DDGs). In the general database, half of the studies were published from 2003 to 2015 and the other half from 2015 to 2022. Greater variability in the net energy content and standardized ileal digestible lysine concentrations from 2015 to 2022 were the main concerns. The second database included information on high-protein dried distillers grains (HP-DDGs) collected directly from several feed mills and was built using the results of chemical analyses. These results suggest that the nutritional matrix of co-products should be assessed for each processing plant. Nevertheless, a coefficient of variation of up to 6% was found for crude protein and up to 20% for ether extract. Variability in nutritional composition is an important challenge of using distillers' co-products in pig feed.

Effects of black soldier fly larvae on biotransformation and residues of spent mushroom substrate and wet distiller's grains

Black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) could convert a variety of organic wastes, including spent mushroom substrate (SMS) and wet distiller's grains (WDG). Nevertheless, little is known about the conversion of these wastes by BSFL. Thus, this study investigates the conversion of SMS and WDG in five different proportions by BSFL. This study demonstrates that BSFL can convert SMS, WDG, and their mixtures. It can also encourage the humification of the substrate, increasing the amount of element in the residues. It is evident that there were differences in the carbon and nitrogen element fractionation mode as well as the microbial community present in the residue. The microbial community of the substrate and the physiochemical parameters are intimately related to this. Although the mixture treated with BSFL helps to generate a residue with more humus, it might not be stable.

Brazilian Corn Ethanol Coproducts for Pigs: Feeding Value and Blood Parameters

This study aimed to determine the values of net energy (NE), digestible energy (DE) and metabolizable energy (ME) and digestibility coefficients of corn ethanol coproducts produced in Brazil and their effects on the nitrogen balance and blood parameters of pigs. Ten barrows were housed in metabolic study cages for total collection and fed a reference diet (RD) or 800 g/kg RD + 200 g/kg of a coproduct of corn ethanol. Distiller's dried grains with solubles (DDGS), corn bran with solubles (CBS), distiller's dried grains (DDG) and high-protein distiller's dried grain (HPDDG) were evaluated. The experimental design was randomized blocks with three repetitions per period, totaling six repetitions per diet. Diets containing the HPDDG had greater DE and ME than those containing CBS and DDGS and greater DE than those containing the DDG (p < 0.05). HPDDG, DDG, CBS and DDGS showed 4498, 3419, 3029 and 3335 kcal/kg DE; 4366, 3305, 2934 and 3214 kcal/kg ME; and 2515, 1938, 1649 and 1725 kcal/kg NE, respectively. Pigs fed diets containing HPDDG and CBS showed greater nitrogen retention efficiency than pigs fed DDGS (p < 0.05). Pigs fed diets containing HPDDG had higher blood urea levels than pigs fed CBS and RD, while triglyceride levels in animals that received the CBS diet were greater than those in animals that received all other diets. The HPDDG had the highest energy levels and the best digestibility coefficients. The chemical composition of coproducts influences the nitrogen balance and circulating levels of urea and triglycerides in pigs.

Aflatoxin Decontamination in Maize Steep Liquor Obtained from Bioethanol Production Using Laccases from Species within the Basidiomycota Phylum

Maize (Zea mays L.) is an important crop in Argentina. Aspergillus section Flavi can infect this crop at the pre-harvest stage, and the harvested grains can be contaminated with aflatoxins (AFs). During the production of bioethanol from maize, AF levels can increase up to three times in the final co-products, known as, dry and wet distiller's grain with solubles (DDGS and WDGS), intended for animal feed. Fungal enzymes like laccases can be a useful tool for reducing AF contamination in the co-products obtained from this process. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the ability of laccase enzymes included in enzymatic extracts (EE) produced by different species in the Basidiomycota phylum to reduce AF (AFB1 and AFB2) accumulation under the conditions of in vitro assays. Four laccase activities (5, 10, 15, and 20 U/mL) exerted by nine isolates were evaluated in the absence and presence of vanillic acid (VA), serving as a laccase redox mediator for the degradation of total AFs. The enzymatic stability in maize steep liquor (MSL) was confirmed after a 60 h incubation period. The most effective EE in terms of reducing AF content in the buffer was selected for an additional assay carried out under the same conditions using maize steep liquor obtained after the saccharification stage during the bioethanol production process. The highest degradation percentages were observed at 20 U/mL of laccase enzymatic activity and 1 mM of VA, corresponding to 26% for AFB1 and 26.6% for AFB2. The present study provides valuable data for the development of an efficient tool based on fungal laccases for preventing AF accumulation in the co-products of bioethanol produced from maize used for animal feed.

Sustainable Isolation of Bioactive Compounds and Proteins from Plant-Based Food (and Byproducts)

Plant-based food produces significantly less greenhouse gases, and due to its wealth of bioactive components and/or plant-based protein, it becomes an alternative in a sustainable food system. However, the processing and production of products from plant sources creates byproducts, which can be waste or a source of useful substances that can be reused. The waste produced during the production and processing of food is essentially nutrient- and energy-rich, and it is recognized as an excellent source of secondary raw materials that could be repurposed in the process of manufacturing and preparing food, or as feed for livestock. This review offers an overview of the sources and techniques of the sustainable isolation of bioactive substances and proteins from various sources that might represent waste in the preparation or production of food of plant origin. The aim is to uncover novel approaches to use waste and byproducts from the process of making food to provide this waste food an additional benefit, not forgetting the expectations of the end user, the consumer. For the successful isolation of bioactive ingredients and proteins from food of plant origin, it is crucial to develop more eco-friendly and efficient extraction techniques with a low CO2 footprint while considering the economic aspects.

Feasibility insights into the application of Paenibacillus pabuli E1 in animal feed to eliminate non-starch polysaccharides

The goal of the research was to find alternative protein sources for animal farming that are efficient and cost-effective. The researchers focused on distillers dried grains with solubles (DDGS), a co-product of bioethanol production that is rich in protein but limited in its use as a feed ingredient due to its high non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs) content, particularly for monogastric animals. The analysis of the Paenibacillus pabuli E1 genome revealed the presence of 372 genes related to Carbohydrate-Active enzymes (CAZymes), with 98 of them associated with NSPs degrading enzymes that target cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin. Additionally, although lignin is not an NSP, two lignin-degrading enzymes were also examined because the presence of lignin alongside NSPs can hinder the catalytic effect of enzymes on NSPs. To confirm the catalytic ability of the degrading enzymes, an in vitro enzyme activity assay was conducted. The results demonstrated that the endoglucanase activity reached 5.37 U/mL, while beta-glucosidase activity was 4.60 U/mL. The filter paper experiments did not detect any reducing sugars. The xylanase and beta-xylosidase activities were measured at 11.05 and 4.16 U/mL, respectively. Furthermore, the pectate lyase and pectin lyase activities were found to be 8.19 and 2.43 U/mL, respectively. The activities of laccase and MnP were determined as 1.87 and 4.30 U/mL, respectively. The researchers also investigated the effect of P. pabuli E1 on the degradation of NSPs through the solid-state fermentation of DDGS. After 240 h of fermentation, the results showed degradation rates of 11.86% for hemicellulose, 11.53% for cellulose, and 8.78% for lignin. Moreover, the crude protein (CP) content of DDGS increased from 26.59% to 30.59%. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that P. pabuli E1 possesses various potential NSPs degrading enzymes that can effectively eliminate NSPs in feed. This process improves the quality and availability of the feed, which is important for animal farming as it seeks alternative protein sources to replace traditional nutrients.

Aflatoxin B1 Degradation by Ery4 Laccase: From In Vitro to Contaminated Corn

Aflatoxins (AFs) are toxic secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus spp. and are found in food and feed as contaminants worldwide. Due to climate change, AFs occurrence is expected to increase also in western Europe. Therefore, to ensure food and feed safety, it is mandatory to develop green technologies for AFs reduction in contaminated matrices. With this regard, enzymatic degradation is an effective and environmentally friendly approach under mild operational conditions and with minor impact on the food and feed matrix. In this work, Ery4 laccase, acetosyringone, ascorbic acid, and dehydroascorbic acid were investigated in vitro, then applied in artificially contaminated corn for AFB₁ reduction. AFB₁ (0.1 µg/mL) was completely removed in vitro and reduced by 26% in corn. Several degradation products were detected in vitro by UHPLC-HRMS and likely corresponded to AFQ₁, epi-AFQ₁, AFB₁-diol, or AFB₁dialehyde, AFB_2a, and AFM₁. Protein content was not altered by the enzymatic treatment, while slightly higher levels of lipid peroxidation and H₂O₂ were detected. Although further studies are needed to improve AFB₁ reduction and reduce the impact of this treatment in corn, the results of this study are promising and suggest that Ery4 laccase can be effectively applied for the reduction in AFB₁ in corn.

Turning Food Protein Waste into Sustainable Technologies

For each kilogram of food protein wasted, between 15 and 750 kg of CO2 end up in the atmosphere. With this alarming carbon footprint, food protein waste not only contributes to climate change but also significantly impacts other environmental boundaries, such as nitrogen and phosphorus cycles, global freshwater use, change in land composition, chemical pollution, and biodiversity loss. This contrasts sharply with both the high nutritional value of proteins, as well as their unique chemical and physical versatility, which enable their use in new materials and innovative technologies. In this review, we discuss how food protein waste can be efficiently valorized not only by reintroduction into the food chain supply but also as a template for the development of sustainable technologies by allowing it to exit the food-value chain, thus alleviating some of the most urgent global challenges. We showcase three technologies of immediate significance and environmental impact: biodegradable plastics, water purification, and renewable energy. We discuss, by carefully reviewing the current state of the art, how proteins extracted from food waste can be valorized into key players to facilitate these technologies. We furthermore support analysis of the extant literature by original life cycle assessment (LCA) examples run ad hoc on both plant and animal waste proteins in the context of the technologies considered, and against realistic benchmarks, to quantitatively demonstrate their efficacy and potential. We finally conclude the review with an outlook on how such a comprehensive management of food protein waste is anticipated to transform its carbon footprint from positive to negative and, more generally, have a favorable impact on several other important planetary boundaries.

Dietary addition of fermented sorghum distiller's dried grains with soluble improves carcass traits and meat quality in growing-finishing pigs

The fermented sorghum distiller's dried grain with soluble (FS-DDGS) contains numerous nutrients, yet its nutritional effects on growing-finishing pigs remain unclear. The present study evaluated the effects of dietary FS-DDGS addition on growth performance, carcass traits, and meat quality in growing-finishing pigs. A total of 48 healthy male crossbred (Large White × Landrace × Duroc) barrows with initial body weight (BW) of 39.95 ± 2.15 kg were allocated to one of four dietary treatments (12 pigs per treatment). The dietary treatments were as follows: basal diet without (FS-DDGS0 group) or with 50 g/kg (FS-DDGS50 group), 100 g/kg (FS-DDGS100 group), or 150 g/kg (FS-DDGS150 group) FS-DDGS, respectively. Results showed that there were no significant differences in the final BW, average daily gain, average daily feed intake, and feed to gain ratio among these four groups. However, dietary FS-DDGS addition increased (linear, P < 0.05) the pH_24h value, contents of ash, crude protein, and proline in Longissimus dorsi muscle, and alanine, arginine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, serine, and tyrosine in Biceps femoris (BF) muscle, when compared with the control group. In addition, dietary FS-DDGS addition decreased (linear, P < 0.05) the drip loss, yellowness (b*) value, and lightness (L*) value, while quadratically improved (P < 0.05) the total bone percentage and glycine and proline contents in BF muscle compared with the control group. Collectively, these findings suggested that dietary FS-DDGS addition could improve the carcass traits and meat quality in growing-finishing pigs although further research is needed to explore the underlying mechanisms.