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Zhang X, Luther AK, Rabaey K, Prévoteau A. Periodic polarization duty cycle tunes performance and adhesion of anodic electroactive biofilms. Bioelectrochemistry 2024; 155:108581. [PMID: 37883861 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioelechem.2023.108581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/27/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Periodic polarization can improve the performance of anodic electroactive biofilms (EABs). The impact of the half-period duration was previously investigated at constant duty cycle (50%), i.e., the proportion of a period during which the electrode is polarized. Here, we cultured eight EABs on glassy carbon electrodes at four different duty cycles (50%, 67%, 80% and 91%) by varying the time interval under open circuit conditions, while keeping the polarization duration at 10 s. The shorter duty cycles slightly slowed initial growth but produced EABs generating higher faradaic currents. The total charge recovery over 38 days increased with decreasing duty cycles from 0.53 kC.cm-2 (duty cycle of 91%) to 1.65 kC.cm-2 (50%). EABs with the shortest duty cycle fully detached twice from the electrode surface, but detachments were quickly followed by the formation of more efficient EABs. We then carried out controlled removal of some aged and low current-producing EABs by applying a 30 s cathodic current (H2 evolution at -15 mA.cm-2) and observed the subsequent rapid development of fresh EABs displaying better electrochemical performance. Our results illustrate that well-chosen dynamic controls of electrode potentials can substantially improve the average current production of EABs, or allow a simple replacement of underperforming EABs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Zhang
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Amanda K Luther
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Korneel Rabaey
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; Centre for Advanced Process Technology for Urban Resource Recovery (CAPTURE), 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Antonin Prévoteau
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; Centre for Advanced Process Technology for Urban Resource Recovery (CAPTURE), 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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2
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Yu Y, Liu H, Jin H, Chen J, Chen D. Metal-organic framework derived bio-anode enhances chlorobenzene removal and electricity generation: Special Ru 4+/Ru 3+-bridged intracellular electron transfer. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 245:120578. [PMID: 37688857 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.120578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/11/2023]
Abstract
Efficient removal of chlorinated organic contaminants using the microbial fuel cell (MFC) provides a promising strategy to alleviate water pollution and energy crisis. However, bio-degradation is challenged by poor biofilm formation and sluggish intracellular electron transfer, causing unsatisfactory electricity generation. To address those problems, a metal-organic framework derivative, Ru-porous TiO2 (Ru-PT) bio-anode has been artfully designed herein for chlorobenzene removal. The Ru-PT bio-anode not only formed a compact anodic biofilm due to the large specific surface area of PT, but more importantly, it introduced special pseudocapacitance-enhanced intracellular electron transfer by slowly implanting Ru4+/Ru3+ redox pair into bacteria. Such a Ru4+/Ru3+ implantation was then found to directionally induce the enrichment of a dual-functional genus (degrader & exoelectrogen), Pseudomonas, thereby enhancing the conversion of bio-refractory chlorophenols towards biodegradable carboxylic acids. These features allowed our MFC to have a resilient chlorobenzene removal and accompanied satisfactory electricity generation, with power density, coulombic efficiency, and turnover frequency reaching 662 mW m-2, 8.7%, and 386,622 s-1, which outcompeted those of other MFCs reported. Further, benefiting from the reversible pseudocapacitance, the Ru-PT bio-anode intriguingly functioned as an internal capacitor for electricity storage. This work provided important insights into cost-effective bio-anode development and offered an avenue for engineering MFC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Yu
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Petrochemical Environmental Pollution Control, College of Petrochemical Engineering and Environment, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan 316022, China
| | - Haoyang Liu
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Petrochemical Environmental Pollution Control, College of Petrochemical Engineering and Environment, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan 316022, China; College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China
| | - Huachang Jin
- National and Local Joint Engineering Research Center, College of Life and Environmental Science, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jianmeng Chen
- College of Environmental and Resources Science, Zhejiang University of Science & Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China
| | - Dongzhi Chen
- Zhejiang Key Laboratory of Petrochemical Environmental Pollution Control, College of Petrochemical Engineering and Environment, Zhejiang Ocean University, Zhoushan 316022, China; College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China.
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3
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Gao Y, Xia L, Yao P, Lee HS. Periodic step polarization accelerates electron recovery by electroactive biofilms (EABs). Biotechnol Bioeng 2023; 120:1545-1556. [PMID: 36782377 DOI: 10.1002/bit.28352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 01/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/09/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2023]
Abstract
Relatively low rate of electron recovery is one of the factors that limit the advancement of bioelectrochemical systems. Here, new periodic polarizations were investigated with electroactive biofilms (EABs) enriched from activated sludge and Geobacter sulfurreducens biofilms. When representative anode potentials (Ea ) were applied, redox centers with midpoint potentials (Emid ) higher than Ea were identified by localized cyclic voltammetry. The electrons held by these redox centers were accessible when Ea was raised to 0.4 V (vs. Ag/AgCl). New periodic polarizations that discharge at 0.4 V recovered electrons faster than normal periodic and fixed-potential polarizations. The best-performing periodic step polarization accelerated electron recovery by 23%-24% and 12%-76% with EABs and G. sulfurreducens biofilms, respectively, compared to the fixed-potential polarization. Quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction showed an increased abundance of omcZ mRNA transcripts from G. sulfurreducens after periodic step polarization. Therefore, both the rate of energy recovery by EABs and the performance of bioelectrochemical systems can be enhanced by improving the polarization schemes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaohuan Gao
- Institute of Global Environmental Change, School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Longfei Xia
- Institute of Global Environmental Change, School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China.,Shaanxi Provincial Land Engineering Construction Group, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Peiru Yao
- Institute of Global Environmental Change, School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Hyung-Sool Lee
- Institute for Environmental and Climate Technology, Korea Institute of Energy Technology (KENTECH), Naju-si, Republic of Korea
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4
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Pereira J, Mediayati Y, van Veelen HPJ, Temmink H, Sleutels T, Hamelers B, Heijne AT. The effect of intermittent anode potential regimes on the morphology and extracellular matrix composition of electro-active bacteria. Biofilm 2022; 4:100064. [PMID: 34984335 PMCID: PMC8693015 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioflm.2021.100064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Revised: 11/01/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Electro-active bacteria (EAB) can form biofilms on an anode (so-called bioanodes), and use the electrode as electron acceptor for oxidation of organics in wastewater. So far, bioanodes have mainly been investigated under a continuous anode potential, but intermittent anode potential has resulted in higher currents and different biofilm morphologies. However, little is known about how intermittent potential influences the electron balance in the anode compartment. In this study, we investigated electron balances of bioanodes at intermittent anode potential regimes. We used a transparent non-capacitive electrode that also allowed for in-situ quantification of the EAB using optical coherence tomography (OCT). We observed comparable current densities between continuous and intermittent bioanodes, and stored charge was similar for all the applied intermittent times (5 mC). Electron balances were further investigated by quantifying Extracellular Polymeric Substances (EPS), by analyzing the elemental composition of biomass, and by quantifying biofilm and planktonic cells. For all tested conditions, a charge balance of the anode compartment showed that more electrons were diverted to planktonic cells than biofilm. Besides, 27–43% of the total charge was detected as soluble EPS in intermittent bioanodes, whereas only 15% was found as soluble EPS in continuous bioanodes. The amount of proteins in the EPS of biofilms was higher for intermittent operated bioanodes (0.21 mg COD proteins mg COD biofilm−1) than for continuous operated bioanodes (0.05 mg COD proteins mg COD biofilm−1). OCT revealed patchy morphologies for biofilms under intermittent anode potential. Overall, this study helped understanding that the use of a non-capacitive electrode and intermittent anode potential deviated electrons to other processes other than electric current at the electrode by identifying electron sinks in the anolyte and quantifying the accumulation of electrons in the form of EPS. Continuous acetate feeding and intermittent anode potential lead to EPS production in electro-active bacteria. A charge balance was made including soluble EPS and planktonic cells. Patchy biofilm morphologies and more planktonic cells were observed when intermittent anode potential was applied. Biofilms grown under intermittent anode potential had more EPS and more proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Pereira
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Oostergoweg 9, 8911MA, Leeuwarden, the Netherlands.,Environmental Technology, Wageningen University, Bornse Weilanden 9, P.O. Box 17, 6700, AA, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Yuniki Mediayati
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Oostergoweg 9, 8911MA, Leeuwarden, the Netherlands.,Environmental Technology, Wageningen University, Bornse Weilanden 9, P.O. Box 17, 6700, AA, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - H Pieter J van Veelen
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Oostergoweg 9, 8911MA, Leeuwarden, the Netherlands
| | - Hardy Temmink
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Oostergoweg 9, 8911MA, Leeuwarden, the Netherlands.,Environmental Technology, Wageningen University, Bornse Weilanden 9, P.O. Box 17, 6700, AA, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Tom Sleutels
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Oostergoweg 9, 8911MA, Leeuwarden, the Netherlands
| | - Bert Hamelers
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Oostergoweg 9, 8911MA, Leeuwarden, the Netherlands.,Environmental Technology, Wageningen University, Bornse Weilanden 9, P.O. Box 17, 6700, AA, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Annemiek Ter Heijne
- Environmental Technology, Wageningen University, Bornse Weilanden 9, P.O. Box 17, 6700, AA, Wageningen, the Netherlands
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Wang X, Prévoteau A, Rabaey K. Impact of Periodic Polarization on Groundwater Denitrification in Bioelectrochemical Systems. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:15371-15379. [PMID: 34727498 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c03586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Nitrate contamination is a common problem in groundwater around the world. Nitrate can be cathodically reduced in bioelectrochemical systems using autotrophic denitrifiers with low energy investment and without chemical addition. Successful denitrification was demonstrated in previous studies in both microbial fuel cells and microbial electrolysis cells (MECs) with continuous current flow, whereas the impact of intermittent current supply (e.g., in a fluidized-bed system) on denitrification and particularly the electron-storing capacity of the denitrifying electroactive biofilms (EABs) on the cathodes have not been studied in depth. In this study, two continuously fed MECs were operated in parallel under continuous and periodic polarization modes over 280 days, respectively. Under continuous polarization, the maximum denitrification rate reached 233 g NO3--N/m3/d with 98% nitrate removal (0.6 mg NO3--N/L in the effluent) with negligible intermediate production, while under a 30 s open-circuit/30 s polarization mode, 86% of nitrate was removed at a maximum rate of 205 g NO3--N/m3/d (4.5 mg NO3--N/L in the effluent) with higher N2O production (6.6-9.3 mg N/L in the effluent). Conversely, periodic polarization could be an interesting approach in other bioelectrochemical processes if the generation of chemical intermediates (partially reduced or oxidized) should be favored. Similar microbial communities dominated byGallionellaceaewere found in both MECs; however, swapping the polarization modes and the electrochemical analyses suggested that the periodically polarized EABs probably developed a higher ability for electron storage and transfer, which supported the direct electron transfer pathway in discontinuous operation or fluidized biocathodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofei Wang
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Centre for Advanced Process Technology for Urban Resource Recovery (CAPTURE), Frieda Saeysstraat 1, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Antonin Prévoteau
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Centre for Advanced Process Technology for Urban Resource Recovery (CAPTURE), Frieda Saeysstraat 1, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Korneel Rabaey
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- Centre for Advanced Process Technology for Urban Resource Recovery (CAPTURE), Frieda Saeysstraat 1, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
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6
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Hydrogen peroxide in bioelectrochemical systems negatively affects microbial current generation. J APPL ELECTROCHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10800-021-01586-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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7
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Quejigo JR, Korth B, Kuchenbuch A, Harnisch F. Redox Potential Heterogeneity in Fixed-Bed Electrodes Leads to Microbial Stratification and Inhomogeneous Performance. CHEMSUSCHEM 2021; 14:1155-1165. [PMID: 33387375 PMCID: PMC7986606 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202002611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Bed electrodes provide high electrode area-to-volume ratios represent a promising configuration for transferring bioelectrochemical systems close to industrial applications. Nevertheless, the intrinsic electrical resistance leads to poor polarization behavior. Therefore, the distribution of Geobacter spp. and their electrochemical performance within exemplary fixed-bed electrodes are investigated. A minimally invasive sampling system allows characterization of granules from different spatial locations of bed electrodes. Cyclic voltammetry of single granules (n=63) demonstrates that the major share of electroactivity (134.3 mA L-1 ) is achieved by approximately 10 % of the bed volume, specifically that being close to the current collector. Nevertheless, analysis of the microbial community reveals that Geobacter spp. dominated all sampled granules. These findings clearly demonstrate the need for engineered bed electrodes to improve electron exchange between microorganisms and granules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose Rodrigo Quejigo
- Department of Environmental MicrobiologyHelmholtz Centre for Environmental Research GmbH – UFZPermoser Str. 1504318LeipzigGermany
| | - Benjamin Korth
- Department of Environmental MicrobiologyHelmholtz Centre for Environmental Research GmbH – UFZPermoser Str. 1504318LeipzigGermany
| | - Anne Kuchenbuch
- Department of Environmental MicrobiologyHelmholtz Centre for Environmental Research GmbH – UFZPermoser Str. 1504318LeipzigGermany
| | - Falk Harnisch
- Department of Environmental MicrobiologyHelmholtz Centre for Environmental Research GmbH – UFZPermoser Str. 1504318LeipzigGermany
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8
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Rovira-Alsina L, Balaguer MD, Puig S. Thermophilic bio-electro carbon dioxide recycling harnessing renewable energy surplus. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2021; 321:124423. [PMID: 33260066 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2020.124423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Renewable energies will represent an increasing share of the electricity supply, while flue and gasification-derived gases can be a promising CO2 feedstock with a heat load. In this study, microbial electrosynthesis of organic compounds from CO2 at high temperature was proposed as an alternative for valorising energy surplus and decarbonizing the economy. The unremitting fluctuation of renewable energy sources was assessed using two bioreactors at 50 °C, under circumstances of continuous and intermittent power supply (ON-OFF; 8-16 h), simulating an off-grid photovoltaic system. Results highlighted that maximum acetate production rate (43.27 g m-2 d-1) and columbic efficiency (98%) were achieved by working with an intermittent energy supply, while current density was reduced three times. This boosted the production of acetate per unit of electricity provided up to 138 g kWh-1 and reinforced the robustness of the technology by showing resilience to tolerate perturbations and returning to its initial state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Rovira-Alsina
- LEQUiA, Institute of the Environment, University of Girona, Campus Montilivi, C/Maria Aurèlia Capmany, 69, E-17003 Girona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - M Dolors Balaguer
- LEQUiA, Institute of the Environment, University of Girona, Campus Montilivi, C/Maria Aurèlia Capmany, 69, E-17003 Girona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Sebastià Puig
- LEQUiA, Institute of the Environment, University of Girona, Campus Montilivi, C/Maria Aurèlia Capmany, 69, E-17003 Girona, Catalonia, Spain.
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9
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A chip-based 128-channel potentiostat for high-throughput studies of bioelectrochemical systems: Optimal electrode potentials for anodic biofilms. Biosens Bioelectron 2020; 174:112813. [PMID: 33303324 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2020.112813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The presence of microorganisms performing extracellular electron transfer has been established in many environments. Research to determine their role is moving slowly due to the high cost of potentiostats and the variance of data with small number of replicates. Here, we present a 128-channel potentiostat, connected to a 128 gold electrode array. Whereas the system is able to perform simultaneously 128 (bio)electrochemical measurements with an independent electrical signal input, the present manufacturing of the array limited the number of effective channels for this study to 77. We assessed the impact of 11 electrode potentials ranging from -0.45V to +0.2V vs. Ag/AgCl (7 replicates per potential) on the growth and electrochemical characteristics of anodic electroactive biofilms (EABs) formed by acetate-fed microbial communities. After 7 days of growth, maximum current was reached for electrodes poised at -0.3V, closely followed by -0.25V and -0.1V to +0.1V, a range well-fitting the midpoint potential of minerals naturally reduced by electroactive bacteria such as Geobacter Sulfurreducens. There was no significant difference in apparent midpoint potential of the EABs (-0.35V), suggesting that the mechanism of heterogeneous electron transfer was not affected by the electrode potential. The EABs poised below current plateau potential (≤-0.3V) exhibited slower growth but higher charge transfer parameters. The high-throughput and high reproducibility provided by the array may have a major facilitating impact on the field of electromicrobiology. Key aspects to improve are data processing algorithms to deal with the vast amount of generated data, and manufacturing of the electrode array itself.
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Korth B, Kuchenbuch A, Harnisch F. Availability of Hydrogen Shapes the Microbial Abundance in Biofilm Anodes based on
Geobacter
Enrichment. ChemElectroChem 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.202000731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Korth
- Department of Environmental Microbiology Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research GmbH – UFZ Permoser Str. 15 04318 Leipzig Germany
| | - Anne Kuchenbuch
- Department of Environmental Microbiology Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research GmbH – UFZ Permoser Str. 15 04318 Leipzig Germany
| | - Falk Harnisch
- Department of Environmental Microbiology Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research GmbH – UFZ Permoser Str. 15 04318 Leipzig Germany
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11
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Ter Heijne A, Pereira MA, Pereira J, Sleutels T. Electron Storage in Electroactive Biofilms. Trends Biotechnol 2020; 39:34-42. [PMID: 32646618 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2020.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Revised: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Microbial electrochemical technologies (METs) are promising for sustainable applications. Recently, electron storage during intermittent operation of electroactive biofilms (EABs) has been shown to play an important role in power output and electron efficiencies. Insights into electron storage mechanisms, and the conditions under which these occur, are essential to improve microbial electrochemical conversions and to optimize biotechnological processes. Here, we discuss the two main mechanisms for electron storage in EABs: storage in the form of reduced redox active components in the electron transport chain and in the form of polymers. We review electron storage in EABs and in other microorganisms and will discuss how the mechanisms of electron storage can be influenced.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ter Heijne
- Environmental Technology, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - M A Pereira
- CEB - Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
| | - J Pereira
- Environmental Technology, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, The Netherlands; Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands
| | - T Sleutels
- Wetsus, European Centre of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands
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