Self-Assembled Fluorescent Chemosensors

Printed 384-Well Microtiter Plate on Paper for Fluorescent Chemosensor Array in Food Analysis

We propose a printed 384-well microtiter paper-based fluorescent chemosensor array device (384-well microtiter PCAD) to simultaneously categorize and discriminate saccharides and sulfur-containing amino acids for food analysis. The 384-well microtiter PCAD required 1 μL/4 mm 2 of each well can allow high-throughput sensing. The device embedded with self-assembled fluorescence chemosensors displayed a fingerprint-like response pattern for targets, the image of which was rapidly captured by a portable digital camera. Indeed, the paper-based chemosensor array system combined with imaging analysis and pattern recognition techniques successfully not only categorized saccharides and sulfur-containing amino acids but also classified mono- and disaccharide groups. Furthermore, the quantitative detectability of the printed device was revealed by a spike recovery test for fructose and glutathione in a diluted freshly made tomato juice. We believe that the 384-well microtiter PCAD using the imaging analysis system will be a powerful sensor for multi-analytes at several categorized groups in real samples.

Carbocyanine-Based Fluorescent and Colorimetric Sensor Array for the Discrimination of Medicinal Compounds

Array-based optical sensing is an efficient technique for the determination and discrimination of small organic molecules. This study is aimed at the development of a simple and rapid strategy for obtaining an optical response from a wide range of low-molecular-weight organic compounds. We have suggested a colorimetric and fluorimetric sensing platform based on the combination of two response mechanisms using carbocyanine dyes: aggregation and oxidation. In the first one, the analyte forms ternary aggregates with an oppositely charged surfactant wherein the dye is solubilized in the hydrophobic domains of the surfactant accompanied with fluorescent enhancement. The second mechanism is based on the effect of the analyte on the catalytic reaction rate of dye oxidation with H2O2 in the presence of a metal ion (Cu2+, Pd2+), which entails fluorescence waning and color change. The reaction mixture in a 96-well plate is photographed in visible light (colorimetry) and the near-IR region under red light excitation (fluorimetry). In this proof-of-concept study, we demonstrated the feasibility of discrimination of nine medicinal compounds using principal component analysis: four cephalosporins (ceftriaxone, cefazolin, ceftazidime, cefotaxime), three phenothiazines (promethazine, promazine, chlorpromazine), and two penicillins (benzylpenicillin, ampicillin) in an aqueous solution and in the presence of turkey meat extract. The suggested platform allows simple and rapid recognition of analytes of various nature without using spectral equipment, except for a photo camera.

Aggregation-based fluorescence amplification strategy: "turn-on" sensing of aminoglycosides using near-IR carbocyanine dyes and pre-micellar surfactants

This study is aimed at developing sensing schemes without obtaining selective receptors. A series of simple carbocyanine dyes was synthesized, whose emission was quenched in water with formation of nanoparticles in the range of 20-100 nm. Fluorescence in near-IR region is "turned on" in the presence of a drug cation of middle molecular weight (400-700 Da) and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), as well as anionic drugs and a cationic surfactant (cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, CTAB). Aggregates (clusters) up to 100-200 nm in size were detected using dynamic light scattering (DLS) and Rayleigh light scattering (RLS) techniques in the systems: cationic analyte-SDS, carbocyanine dye-CTAB, and in all brightly fluorescent ternary systems dye-surfactant-analyte. Small ions (<200 Da) incapable of multi-point binding do not form the aggregates or cause the emission enhancement. The "turn-on" signal is only observed at the surfactant submicellar concentrations insufficient to solubilize the dye nanoparticles. Based on these findings, we suggest a rapid and simple method for the detection of ≥4·10^-5 mol/L of neomycin in urine. The proposed strategy paves the way for developing more selective methods.

Boron-Conjugated Pyrenes as Fluorescence-Based Molecular Probes and Security Markers

Boron-embedded aromatic hydrocarbons are a class of molecules known for their distinct electronic and/or optoelectronic properties and are thus suitable for many potential applications. Among those, boronic ester and acid containing molecules have been widely used for sensing and molecular recognition applications, respectively. We compared the sensing and molecular recognition properties of two boron-containing pyrene derivatives for fluoride and glucose sensing applications. The presence of four boronate ester groups enabled fluoride ion sensing at the μM level. The boronic acid derivative is very selective towards glucose compared to other saccharides. Furthermore, we used the mechano-responsive fluorescence changes and self-assembly of these derivatives, respectively, for fluorescence-based inkless and ink (water)-based writing in invisible security labeling applications.

Surfactant Aggregates Encapsulating and Modulating: An Effective Way to Generate Selective and Discriminative Fluorescent Sensors

The heterogeneous structure and dynamic balancing nature of surfactant aggregates make them attractive in developing fluorescent sensors. They can provide a number of advantages, e.g., enhanced fluorescence stability and quantum yield, detection capability in aqueous solutions, and easy operation. Thus, various strategies have been used to construct surfactant aggregate-based fluorescent sensors. Surfactant aggregates play various roles in different strategies and realize multiple sensing behaviors. Many new functions have been discovered for surfactant aggregates in constructing fluorescent sensors. In this feature article, we briefly summarize the development of surfactant aggregate-based fluorescent sensors and their applications in three different types of sensing: selective sensing, multiple analyte sensing, and cross-reactive sensing. For each type of sensing, the design strategies and the roles of surfactant aggregates are particularly introduced. An understanding of these aspects will help to expand the applications of surfactant assemblies in the sensing field.

Highly sensitive detection of copper ions by densely grafting fluorescein inside polyethyleneimine core-silica shell nanoparticles

In this work, polyethyleneimine (PEI) core-silica shell nanoparticles were synthesized and used for densely grafting fluorescent receptor units inside the core of these particles to result in multi-receptor units collectively sensing a target. Herein, copper ion quenching of the fluorescence intensity of a fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) system was selected as a model to confirm our proof-of-concept strategy. Our results showed that, compared to free FITC in solution, a 10-fold enhancement of the Stern-Volmer constant value for Cu(2+) quenching of the fluorescence intensity of the grafted state of FITC in PEI core-silica shell nanoparticles was achieved. Furthermore, compared to a previous collective sensing scheme by densely grafting fluorescent receptor units on a silica nanoparticle surface, the proposed scheme, which grafted fluorescent receptor units inside a polymer nano-core, was simple, highly efficient and presented higher sensitivity.

Silica nanoparticles functionalized with polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers as platforms for photoluminescence (PL) sensing of copper and cyanide ions

Functionalized nanoparticles for photoluminescence (PL) applications are a promising technology for biomedical imaging and as sensors for small molecules. This work presents a new method to modify silica nanoparticles (SNP) using the bifunctional linker 1,1'-carbonyldiimidazole (CDI) with a series of polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimer molecules followed by grafting of fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) or rhodamine B isothiocyanate (RITC) to create platforms for photoluminescence (PL) sensors. A dendrimer size and charge-variable response to only copper(II) ions confirmed the prediction of a selective turn-off sensor via proximity quenching. Both dye density and Cu(2+) quenching efficiency peaked with SNP-dendrimer generation 4 (64 terminal amines). In addition, changing the terminal dendrimer arms to carboxylic acid end groups increased the copper quenching suggesting that more metal ion binding sites were created in close proximity to the dyes. Of the small anions tested for a turn-off sensor, only cyanide ion fully restored the PL when reaching a 2:1 CN(-):Cu(2+) ratio, while EDTA was not as effective at the same ratio. Therefore, dendrimer size and surface charge on the nanoparticles controlled the dye loading and copper quenching efficiency, while creating multiple binding sites for cyanide over other metal binding anions.

Multiresponsive Dynamic Covalent Assemblies for the Selective Sensing of Both Cu(2+) and CN(-) in Water

The use of dynamic assembly for molecular sensing is an intensive area of research in supramolecular chemistry. However, the development of self-assembly architectures for the detection of multiple signals remains challenging. Here, we present dynamic covalent assemblies with multiresponsive properties that also show unique selectivity profiles in water. The receptors were generated in a single step with modularly designed building blocks through acylhydrazone linkages, and their orthogonal assembly with a series of external stimuli was investigated. Notably, the system exhibits responses toward cations, anions, solvents, pH, and amphiphilicity. The discrimination of Cu(2+) from other divalent metal ions was achieved by simply changing the solvent and was evidenced by a Cu(2+)-induced pKa shift. The selective recognition of CN(-) in pure aqueous media was also accomplished through a cooperative effect in conjunction with Zn(2+). Furthermore, the assembly and its responsiveness are functional both in solution and the solid state. The aggregation ability of these dynamic covalent systems supports their binding and sensing properties.

Fluorescence quenching in β-cyclodextrin vesicles: membrane confinement and host-guest interactions

Fluorescent β-cyclodextrin vesicles (β-CDV) that display host cavities available for host-guest interactions at the vesicle surface were prepared by incorporation of the hydrophobic spirobifluorene-based dye 1 into the membrane of unilamellar vesicles. Fluorescence quenching of dye 1 was observed in the presence of different quenchers. Methyl viologen 2 does not quench dye 1 because it does not bind to β-CDV. 4-Nitrophenol 3 and 4-nitrophenol covalently connected to adamantane 4 quench the fluorescence of dye 1 in neutral solution, but by different mechanisms according to lifetime measurements. The quenching efficiency of 3 is pH dependent due to the presence of the phenolate form. Competition experiments with excess host and guest showed that 3 is likely to diffuse in and out of the membrane, while 4 forms an inclusion complex with β-CDV leading to close contact and efficient quenching. Our findings confirm that this dynamic supramolecular system is a versatile model to investigate quenching and recognition processes in bilayer membranes.

Ultrasensitive fluorescent detection of trypsin on the basis of surfactant–protamine assembly with tunable emission wavelength

A facile and ultrasensitive fluorometric assay for trypsin detection was successfully established on the basis of SDS/protamine/fluorescent hydrophobic dye micellar-type assemblies and enzyme-triggered disassembly.

Catching anions with coloured assemblies: binding of pH indicators by a giant-size polyammonium macrocycle for anion naked-eye recognition

Among inorganic anions, only triphosphate displaces bromocresol purple from its assembly with a tetra-cyclam macrocycle, allowing for its selective colorimetric detection.

A new fluorescent chemosensor for highly selective and sensitive detection of inorganic phosphate (Pi) in aqueous solution and living cells

A new fluorescein-based chemosensor, FP-Fe³⁺, was developed for the detection of inorganic phosphate (Pi) in aqueous solution and living cells.

Polymeric assemblies and nanoparticles with stimuli-responsive fluorescence emission characteristics

Fluorescent polymeric assemblies and nanoparticles (NPs) of nanoscale dimensions have become a focus of intensive investigations during the past few decades due to combined advantages such as improved biocompatibility, water dispersibility, stimuli-responsiveness, facile integration into optical detection devices, and the ability of further functionalization. In addition, the chemical composition and morphology of polymeric assemblies and NPs can be modulated via synthetic approaches, leading to the precise spatial organization of multiple fluorophores. Thus, polymeric assemblies and NPs have been utilized to optimize the photoluminescent properties of covalently or physically attached fluorophores and facilely modulate the fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) processes when the polymeric matrix is endowed with stimuli-responsiveness. These fascinating fluorescent polymeric assemblies and NPs offer unique and versatile platforms for the construction of novel detection, imaging, biolabeling, and optoelectronic systems. This feature article focuses on the recent developments of polymeric assemblies and NPs-based stimuli-tunable fluorescent systems and highlights their future practical applications with selected literature reports.

FRET-mediated pH-responsive dual fluorescent nanoparticles prepared via click chemistry

Herein, we report an easy preparation of azide-coated polystyrene-based nanoparticles (15 nm in diameter) and their surface functionalization via CuAAC with fluorophores in water. Resultant dual fluorescent nanoparticles coated with dansyl and pH-sensitive fluorescein moieties as the donor/acceptor FRET pair show a ratiometric response to pH upon excitation at a single wavelength.

A novel polymeric chemosensor: dual colorimetric detection of metal ions through click synthesis

A highly colored polystyrene derivative bearing side chain chromophores composed of dialkylanilino donor and cyano-based acceptor groups, prepared by atom-economic click postfunctionalization, displays the dual colorimetric detection behavior of several metal ions based on the specific interactions with different nitrogen atoms. Hard to borderline metal ions, such as Fe(3+) , Fe(2+) , and Sn(2+) , are always recognized by the dialkylanilino nitrogen atom, resulting in a decrease in the charge-transfer (CT) band intensity of the donor-acceptor chromophores. On the other hand, the recognition site of a soft metal ion of Ag(+) is the cyano nitrogen atom due to the readily formed multivalent coordination, which produces a bathochromic shift of the CT band.

Sensing with fluorescent nanoparticles

Fluorescent chemosensors are chemical systems that can detect and signal the presence of selected analytes through variations in their fluorescence emission. Their peculiar properties make them arguably one of the most useful tools that chemistry has provided to biomedical research, enabling the intracellular monitoring of many different species for medical and biological purposes. In its simplest design, a fluorescent chemosensor is composed of a fluorescent dye and a receptor, with a built-in transduction mechanism that converts recognition events into variations of the emission properties of the fluorescent dye. As soon as fluorescent nanoparticles became available, several applications in the field of sensing were explored. Nanoparticles have been used not only as better-performing substitutes of traditional dyes but also as multivalent scaffolds for the realization of supramolecular assemblies, while their high surface to volume ratio allows for distinct spatial domains (bulk, external surface, pores and shells) to be functionalized to a comparable extent with different organic species. Over the last few years, nanoparticles proved to be versatile synthetic platforms for the implementation of new sensing schemes.

Hg2+-reactive double hydrophilic block copolymer assemblies as novel multifunctional fluorescent probes with improved performance

We report on novel type of responsive double hydrophilic block copolymer (DHBC)-based multifunctional chemosensors to Hg(2+) ions, pH, and temperatures and investigate the effects of thermo-induced micellization on the detection sensitivity. Well-defined DHBCs bearing rhodamine B-based Hg(2+)-reactive moieties (RhBHA) in the thermo-responsive block, poly(ethylene oxide)-b-poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-RhBHA) (PEO-b-P(NIPAM-co-RhBHA)), were synthesized via reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. Nonfluorescent RhBHA moieties are subjected to selective ring-opening reaction upon addition of Hg(2+) ions or lowering solution pH, producing highly fluorescent acyclic species. Thus, at room temperature PEO-b-P(NIPAM-co-RhBHA) DHBCs can serve as water-soluble multifunctional and efficient fluorescent chemosensors to Hg(2+) ions and pH. Upon heating above the lower critical solution temperature (approximately 36 degrees C) of the PNIPAM block, they self-assemble into micelles possessing P(NIPAM-co-RhBHA) cores and well-solvated PEO coronas, which were fully characterized by dynamic and static laser light scattering. It was found that the detection sensitivity to Hg(2+) ions and pH could be dramatically improved at elevated temperatures due to fluorescence enhancement of RhBHA residues in the acyclic form, which were embedded within hydrophobic cores of thermo-induced micellar aggregates. This work represents a proof-of-concept example of responsive DHBC-based multifunctional fluorescent chemosensors for the highly efficient detection of Hg(2+) ions, pH, and temperatures with tunable detection sensitivity. Compared to reaction-based small molecule Hg(2+) probes in previous literature reports, the integration of stimuli-responsive block copolymers with well-developed small molecule-based selective sensing moieties in the current study are expected to exhibit preferred advantages including enhanced detection sensitivity, water dispersibility, biocompatibility, facile incorporation into devices, and the ability of further functionalization for targeted imaging and detection.