Exploring the Hydration of Pb2+: Ab Initio Studies and First-Principles Molecular Dynamics

Hydration numbers of biologically relevant divalent metal cations from ab initio molecular dynamics and continuum solvation methods

Hydration and, in particular, the coordination number of a metal ion is of paramount importance as it defines many of its (bio)physicochemical properties. It is not only essential for understanding its behavior in aqueous solutions but also determines the metal ion reference state and its binding energy to (bio)molecules. In this paper, for divalent metal cations Ca2+, Cd2+, Cu2+, Fe2+, Hg2+, Mg2+, Ni2+, Pb2+, and Zn2+, we compare two approaches for predicting hydration numbers: (1) a mixed explicit/continuum DFT-D3//COSMO-RS solvation model and (2) density functional theory based ab initio molecular dynamics. The former approach is employed to calculate the Gibbs free energy change for the sequential hydration reactions, starting from [M(H2O)2]2+ aqua complexes to [M(H2O)9]2+, allowing explicit water molecules to bind in the first or second coordination sphere and determining the most stable [M(H2O)n]2+ structure. In the latter approach, the hydration number is obtained by integrating the ion-water radial distribution function. With a couple of exceptions, the metal ion hydration numbers predicted by the two approaches are in mutual agreement, as well as in agreement with the experimental data.

Computational Investigation of Adsorptive Removal of Pb

Adsorption using metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) such as UiO-66 has shown great promise in remediating water sources contaminated with toxic heavy metals such as Pb2+, but detailed information about the adsorption process remains limited. In this article, we gained mechanistic insights into Pb2+ adsorption using both functionalised and defective UiO-66 by performing density functional theory calculations using cluster models. Our benchmarked approach led to a computational model of solvated Pb2+ (a hemidirected Pb(H2O)62+ complex) fully consistent with experimental reports. The analysis of Pb2+ adsorption using functionalised UiO-66 determined that factors such as electrostatic attraction, chelation, and limited constraints on the Pb2+ coordination geometry lead to enhanced binding affinity. For these reasons, UiO-66-COO– was identified as the most promising functionalised MOF, consistent with experimental literature. We additionally explored a novel aspect of Pb2+ adsorption by UiO-66: the role of missing linker defects that often characterise this MOF. We found that the defects expected to form in an aqueous environment can act as excellent adsorption sites for Pb2+ and the preferred adsorption geometry is again determined by electrostatic attraction, chelation, and constraints on the Pb2+ coordination geometry. Overall, we conclude that functional groups and defect sites can both contribute to Pb2+ adsorption and our study provides crucial design principles for improving the UiO-66 MOF performance in toxic Pb2+ removal from water.

Combined Computational and Experimental Investigation on the Nature of Hydrated Iodoplumbate Complexes: Insights into the Dual Role of Water in Perovskite Precursor Solutions

Water is generally considered an enemy of metal halide perovskites, being responsible for their rapid degradation and, consequently, undermining the long-term stability of perovskite-based solar cells. However, beneficial effects of liquid water have been surprisingly observed, and synthetic routes including water treatments have shown to improve the quality of perovskite films. This suggests that the interactions of water with perovskites and their precursors are far from being completely understood, as water appears to play a puzzling dual role in perovskite precursor solutions. In this context, studying the basic interactions between perovskite precursors in the aqueous environment can provide a deeper comprehension of this conundrum. In this context, it is fundamental to understand how water impacts the chemistry of iodoplumbate perovskite precursor species, PbI_x^2–x. Here, we investigate the chemistry of these complexes using a combined experimental and theoretical strategy to unveil their peculiar structural and optical properties and eventually to assign the species present in the solution. Our study indicates that iodide-rich iodoplumbates, which are generally key to the formation of lead halide perovskites, are not easily formed in aqueous solutions because of the competition between iodide and solvent molecules in coordinating Pb²⁺ ions, explaining the difficulty of depositing lead iodide perovskites from aqueous solutions. We postulate that the beneficial effect of water when used as an additive is then motivated by its behavior being similar to high coordinative polar aprotic solvents usually employed as additives in one-step perovskite depositions.

Supramolecular Assemblies in Pb(II) Complexes with Hydrazido-Based Ligands

Herein, we describe the synthesis and single crystal X-ray diffraction characterization of several Pb(II) complexes using Schiff base hydrazido-based ligands and different counterions (NO3−, I– and ClO4). In the three complexes reported in this work, the lead(II) metal exhibits a high coordination number (n > 8) and thus it is apparently not involved in tetrel bonding interactions. Moreover, the aromatic ligands participate in noncovalent interactions that play an important role in the formation of several supramolecular assemblies in the solid state of the three Pb(II) complexes. These assemblies have been analyzed by means of Hirshfeld surface analysis and DFT calculations.

Lead(ii): Lewis acid and occasional base, as illustrated by its complex with 1,5-naphthalenedisulfonate and 5-methyl-1,10-phenanthroline

Hydrogen bonding to lead(ii) evidences the Lewis base character of this cation due to its valence shell lone pair.

Modulation of the Structure and Properties of Uranyl Ion Coordination Polymers Derived from 1,3,5-Benzenetriacetate by Incorporation of Ag(I) or Pb(II)

Reaction of uranyl nitrate with 1,3,5-benzenetriacetic acid (H3BTA) in the presence of additional species, either organic bases or their conjugate acids or metal cations, has provided 12 new crystalline complexes, all but one obtained under solvo-hydrothermal conditions. The complexes [C(NH2)3][UO2(BTA)]·H2O (1) and [H2NMe2][UO2(BTA)] (2) crystallize as one- or two-dimensional (1D or 2D) assemblies, respectively, both with uranyl tris-chelation by carboxylate groups and hydrogen-bonded counterions but different ligand conformations. One of the bound carboxylate units is replaced by chelating 1,10-phenanthroline (phen) or 3,4,7,8-tetramethyl-1,10-phenanthroline (Me4phen) in the complexes [(UO2)3(BTA)2(phen)3]·4H2O (3) and [(UO2)3(BTA)2(Me4phen)3]·NMP·3H2O (4) (NMP = N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone), which are a 2D network with honeycomb topology and a 1D polymer, respectively. With silver(I) cations, [UO2Ag(BTA)] (5), a three-dimensional (3D) framework in which the ligand assumes various chelating/bridging coordination modes, and the aromatic ring is involved in Ag(I) bonding, is obtained. A series of seven heterometallic complexes results when lead(II) cations and N-chelating molecules are both present. The complexes [UO2Pb(BTA)(NO3)(bipy)] (6) and [UO2Pb2(BTA)2(bipy)2]·3H2O (7), where bipy is 2,2'-bipyridine, crystallize from the one solution, as 1D and 2D assemblies, respectively. The two 1D coordination polymers [UO2Pb(BTA)(HCOO)(phen)] (8 and 9), again obtained from the one synthesis, provide an example of coordination isomerism, with the formate anion bound either to lead(II) or to uranyl cations. Another 2D architecture is found in [(UO2)2Pb2(BTA)2(HBTA)(H2O)2(phen)2]·2H2O (10), which provides a possible example of a Pb-oxo(uranyl) "cation-cation" interaction. While [UO2Pb(BTA)(HCOO)0.5(NO3)0.5(Me2phen)] (11), where Me2phen is 5,6-dimethyl-1,10-phenanthroline, is a 1D assembly close to those in 6 and 8, [UO2Pb2(BTA)2(Me4phen)2] (12), obtained together with complex 4, crystallizes as a 2D network as a result of the high degree of connectivity provided by the chelating/bridging tricarboxylate ligand. Emission spectra measured in the solid state display vibronic fine structure attributable to uranyl luminescence (except for complex 5, in which emission is quenched), with variations in maxima positions associated with modifications of the uranyl ion environment.

Effects of electronic structure on the hydration of PbNO3(+) and SrNO3(+) ion pairs

Hydration of PbNO3(+) and SrNO3(+) with up to 30 water molecules was investigated with infrared photodissociation (IRPD) spectroscopy and with theory. These ions are the same size, yet the IRPD spectra of these ion pairs for n = 2-8 are significantly different. Bands in the bonded O-H region (∼3000-3550 cm(-1)) indicate that the onset of a second hydration shell begins at n = 5 for PbNO3(+) and n = 6 for SrNO3(+). Spectra for [PbNO3](+)(H2O)2-5 and [SrNO3](+)(H2O)3-6 indicate that the structures of clusters with Pb(ii) are hemidirected with a void in the coordinate sphere. A natural bond orbital analysis of [PbNO3](+)(H2O)5 indicates that the anisotropic solvation of the ion is due to a region of asymmetric electron density on Pb(ii) that can be explained by charge transfer from the nitrate and water ligands into unoccupied p-orbitals on Pb(ii). There are differences in the IRPD spectra of PbNO3(+) and SrNO3(+) with up to 25 water molecules attached. IR intensity in the bonded O-H region is blue-shifted by ∼50 cm(-1) in nanodrops containing SrNO3(+) compared to those containing PbNO3(+), indicative of a greater perturbation of the water H-bond network by strontium. The free O-H stretches of surface water molecules in nanodrops containing 10, 15, 20, and 25 water molecules are red-shifted by ∼3-8 cm(-1) for PbNO3(+) compared to those for SrNO3(+), consistent with more charge transfer between water molecules and Pb(ii). These results demonstrate that the different electronic structure of these ions significantly influences how they are solvated.

THE GEOMETRIES AND PROTON TRANSFER OF HYDRATED DIVALENT LEAD ION CLUSTERS [Pb(H2O)n]2+(n = 1–17)

The low-lying candidates of hydrated divalent lead ion clusters [ Pb(H2O) n]2+ with up to n = 17 have been extensively studied by using density functional theory (DFT) at B3LYP level. The optimized structures show that for n = 5–13 the lowest-energy structures prefer tetracoordinate with hemi-directed geometries, while the best candidates with n = 14–17 are hexacoordinate with holo-directed geometries, which is just consistent with the experimental observation. Furthermore, the origin of hemi-directed and holo-directed geometries has been revealed. It is found that in the hemi-directed geometries, the lone pair orbital has p character and fewer electrons are transferred from the water molecules to the Pb2+ ion. Contrarily, in the holo-directed geometries, the lone pair orbital has little or no p character and more electrons are transferred to the Pb2+ ion. On the other hand, the proton transfer reactions of the [ Pb(H2O) n]2+(n = 2, 4, 8) complexes have been examined, from which the predicted products of these complexes are in good agreement with the experimental observation.

Coordination chemistry study of hydrated and solvated lead(II) ions in solution and solid state

The coordination chemistry of lead(II) in the oxygen donor solvents water, dimethylsulfoxide (dmso, Me(2)SO), N,N-dimethylformamide (dmf), N,N-dimethylacetamide (dma), N,N'-dimethylpropyleneurea (dmpu), and 1,1,3,3-tetramethylurea (tmu), as well as in the sulfur donor solvent N,N-dimethylthioformamide (dmtf), has been investigated by extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) and/or large angle X-ray scattering (LAXS) in solution, and by single crystal X-ray diffraction and/or EXAFS of solid hydrates and solvates. Lead(II) may either form hemidirected complexes with large bond distance distribution and an apparent gap for excess electron density, or holodirected ones with a symmetric coordination sphere with normal bond distance distribution, depending on the strength of antibonding lead 6s/ligand np molecular orbital interactions and ligand-ligand interactions. The crystallographic data show that the solid lead(II) perchlorate and trifluoromethanesulfonate hydrate structures are hemidirected, while the solid lead(II) solvates of dma and dmpu have regular octahedral configuration with holodirected geometry and mean Pb-O bond distances in the range 2.50-2.52 Å. EXAFS data on the hydrated lead(II) ion in aqueous solution show broad bond distance distribution and a lack of inner-core multiple scattering contributions strongly indicating a hemidirected structure. The Pb-O bond distances found both by EXAFS and LAXS, 2.54(1) Å, point to a six-coordinate hydrated lead(II) ion in hemidirected fashion with an unevenly distributed electron density. The results obtained for the dmso solvated lead(II) ion in solution are ambiguous, but for the most part support a six-coordinate hemidirected complex. The mean Pb-O bond distances determined in dmf and dma solution by LAXS, 2.55(1) and 2.48(1) Å, respectively, indicate that in both solvate complexes lead(II) binds six solvent molecules with the former complex being hemidirected whereas the latter is holodirected. The dmpu and tmu solvated lead(II) ions have a regular holodirected octahedral configuration, as expected given their space-demanding characteristics and ligand-ligand intermolecular interactions. The dmtf solvated lead(II) ion in solution is most likely five-coordinate in a hemidirected configuration, with a mean Pb-S bond distance of 2.908(4) Å. New and improved ionic radii for the lead(II) ion in 4-8-coordination in hemi and holodirected configurations are proposed using crystallographic data.

Lead substitution in synaptotagmin: a case study

Quantum chemistry computations have been used to investigate the possibility of a Pb(2+)/Ca(2+) substitution in the three calcium sites of the synaptotagmin enzyme. Provided explicit cation solvation is taken into account, it is shown that the substitution is energetically feasible and induces a strong reorganization of the Ca(2+)-coordinating sites, which may preclude the enzyme for any efficient role when lead poisoning occurs.

Molecular Dynamics Computational Study of the199Hg−199Hg NMR Spin−Spin Coupling Constants of [Hg−Hg−Hg]2+in SO2Solution

The isotropic one-bond and two-bond 199Hg-199Hg nuclear magnetic spin-spin coupling constants (J-couplings) of [Hg-Hg-Hg]2+ were calculated using density functional theory, the zeroth-order regular approximation (ZORA) to treat relativistic effects, and Born-Oppenheimer molecular dynamics (BOMD) including SO2 molecules explicitly for the description of solvent effects. The final BOMD average of 150 kHz for 1J (199Hg-199Hg) agrees well with the experimental spin-spin coupling of 140 kHz measured in liquid SO2, while computations not considering explicit solvation at the quantum-mechanical level yielded one-bond coupling constants between 230 and 260 kHz. The two-bond coupling is similarly strongly affected by solvent effects. An analysis of the BOMD data shows that the effect is mainly due to close contacts between the terminal Hg atoms of [Hg-Hg-Hg]2+ and the solvent's oxygen atoms. The results highlight the importance of solvent effects for the NMR parameter of heavy metals and demonstrate the usefulness of treating such solvent effects with the help of molecular dynamics-based averaging.