Evidence for Kinetic Nucleation in Helical Nanofiber Formation Directed by Chiral Solvent for a Perylene Bisimide Organogelator

Achiral Solvent Inversed Helical Pathway and Cosolvent Controlled Excited-State "Majority Rule" in Enantiomeric Dansulfonamide Assemblies

Achiral solvents are commonly utilized to induce the self-assembly of chiral molecules. This study demonstrates that achiral solvents can trigger helicity inversion in the assemblies of dansyl amphiphiles and control the excited-state "majority rule" in assemblies composed of pure enantiomers, through variation of the cosolvent ratio. Specifically, enantiomers of dansyl amphiphiles self-assemble into helical structures with opposite handedness in methanol (MeOH) and acetonitrile (MeCN), together with inversed circular dichroism and circularly polarized luminescence (CPL) signals. When a mixture of MeOH and MeCN is employed, the achiral cosolvents collectively affect the CPL of the assemblies in a way similar to that of "mixed enantiomers". The dominant cosolvent governs the CPL signal. As the cosolvent composition shifts from pure MeCN to MeOH, the CPL signals undergo a significant inversion and amplification, with two maxima observed at ≈20% MeOH and 20% MeCN. This study deepens the comprehension of how achiral solvents modulate helical nanostructures and their excited-state chiroptical properties.

Revealing Pathway Complexity and Helical Inversion in Supramolecular Assemblies Through Solvent-Induced Radical Disparities

New insights are raised to interpret pathway complexity in the supramolecular assembly of chiral triarylamine tris-amide (TATA) monomer. In cosolvent systems, the monomer undergoes entirely different assembly processes depending on the chemical feature of the two solvents. Specifically, 1,2-dichloroethane (DCE) and methylcyclohexane (MCH) cosolvent trigger the cooperative growth of monomers with M helical arrangement, and hierarchical thin nanobelts are further formed. But in DCE and hexane (HE) combination, a different pathway occurs where monomers go through isodesmic growth to generate twisted nanofibers with P helical arrangement. Moreover, the two distinct assemblies exhibit opposite excited-state chirality. The driving force for both assemblies is the formation of intermolecular hydrogen bonds between amide moieties. However, the mechanistic investigation indicates that radical and neutral triarylamine species go through distinct assembly phases by changing solvent structures. The neutralization of radicals in MCH plays a critical role in pathway complexity, which significantly impacts the overall supramolecular assembly process, giving rise to inversed supramolecular helicity and distinct morphologies. This differentiation in pathways affected by radicals provides a new approach to manipulate chiral supramolecular assembly process by facile solvent-solute interactions.

Pfeiffer effect on configurationally labile dyes within ternary complexes with metal ions and enantiopure macrocycles

A configurationally-labile helical dye, 2,4,5,7-tetranitrofluorenone oximate, is used to probe complexes made of enantiopure macrocycles and mono/divalent metal ions. Induced electronic circular dichroism (ECD) and 1H NMR responses are amplified at room temperature only in the presence of K+ and Na+ ions despite larger binding efficiency with alkaline earth metal ions.

Using a molecular additive to control chiral supramolecular assembly and the subsequent chirality transfer process

Hierarchical assembly of chiral molecules is achieved through the introduction of molecular additives, which enables the chiral assembly of nanosheets into helical nanorods with inverted chirality. Moreover, the hierarchical assembly of chiral molecules in the presence of a molecular additive can lead to the subsequent chirality transfer from a molecular system to nanoparticle assemblies.

Biogenetic Chiral Deep Eutectic Solvents that Produce Self-Assembled Chiroptical Materials

Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) show particular properties compared to ionic liquids and other traditional organic solvents. Controlled synthesis of chiral materials in DESs is unprecedented due to the complex interplays between DESs and solutes. In this work, all bio-derived chiral DESs were prepared using choline chloride or cyclodextrin as hydrogen bonding acceptors and natural chiral acids as donors, which performed as chiral matrices for the rational synthesis of chiroptical materials by taking advantage of the efficient chirality transfer between the DESs and solutes. In a very selective manner, building units with molecular pockets could facilitate strong binding affinity towards chiral acid components of DESs disregarding the presence of competitive hydrogen bonding acceptors. Chirality transfer from DESs to nanoassemblies leads to chirality amplification in the presence of minimal amounts of entrapped chiral acids, thanks to the spontaneous symmetry breaking of solutes during aggregation. This work utilizes chiral DESs to control supramolecular chirality, and illustrates the structural basis for the fabrication of DES-based chiral materials.

Chiral supramolecular polymers

As an active branch within the field of supramolecular polymers, chiral supramolecular polymers (SPs) are an excellent benchmark to generate helical structures that can clarify the origin of homochirality in Nature or help determine new exciting functionalities of organic materials. Herein, we highlight the most utilized strategies to build up chiral SPs by using chiral monomeric units or external stimuli. Selected examples of transfer of asymmetry, in which the point or axial chirality contained by the monomeric units is efficiently transferred to the supramolecular scaffold yielding enantioenriched helical structures, will be presented. The importance of the thermodynamics and kinetics associated with those processes is stressed, especially the influence that parameters such as the helix reversal and mismatch penalties exert on the achievement of amplification of asymmetry in co-assembled systems will also be considered. Remarkable examples of breaking symmetry, in which chiral supramolecular polymers can be attained from achiral self-assembling units by applying external stimuli like stirring, solvent or light, are highlighted. Finally, the specific and promising applications of chiral supramolecular polymers are presented with recent relevant examples.

Solvent-dependent self-assembly of N-annulated perylene diimides. From dimers to supramolecular polymers

The synthesis and self-assembling features of the N-annulated perylene diimide (NPBI) 1 in different solvents are reported. Compound 1 possesses two chiral linkers, derived from (S)-(+)-alaninol, that connect the central aromatic NPBI segment and the peripheral trialkoxybenzamide units. The Ala-based linker has been demonstrated to strongly favor the formation of intramolecularly H-bonded seven-membered pseudocycles. NPBI 1 shows a strong tendency to self-assemble even in a good solvent like CHCl3 and the formation of chiral dimers is detected in this good solvent. Both experimental techniques and theoretical calculations reveal that the intramolecular H-bonded pseudocycles are very robust and the formation of chiral dimers is driven by the π-stacking of two units of the NPBI core. Unexpectedly, an efficient transfer of the asymmetry of the point chirality at the linker to the aromatic moiety is observed in the molecularly dissolved state. Changing the solvent to more apolar methylcyclohexane modifies the self-assembly process and the formation of chiral supramolecular polymers is detected. The supramolecular polymerization of 1 is demonstrated to follow an isodesmic mechanism unlike previous referable systems. In the formation of the supramolecular polymers of 1, the combination of experimental and computational data indicates that the H-bonded pseudocycles are also present in the aggregated state and the rope-like, columnar aggregates formed by the self-assembly of 1 rely on the π-stacking of the NPBI backbones.

Supramolecular chiral sensing by supramolecular helical polymers

A tetrakis(porphyrin) with branched side chains self-assembled to form supramolecular helical polymers both in solution and in the solid state. The helicity of the supramolecular polymers was determined by the chirality of solvent molecules, which permitted the polymer chains to be used in chiral sensing.

Ultrasound-Directed Symmetry Breaking and Spin Filtering of Supramolecular Assemblies from only Achiral Building Blocks

Herein we describe the self-assembly of an achiral molecule into macroscopic helicity as well as the emergent chiral-selective spin-filtering effect. It was found that a benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxamide (BTA) motif with an aminopyridine group in each arm could coordinate with Ag^I and self-assemble into nanospheres. Upon sonication, symmetry breaking occurred and the nanospheres transferred into helical nanofibers with strong CD signals. Although the sign of the CD signals appeared randomly, it could be controlled by using the as-made chiral assemblies as a seed. Furthermore, it was found that the charge transport of the helical nanofibers was highly selective with a spin-polarization transport of up to 45 %, although the chiral nanofibers are composed exclusively from achiral building blocks. This work demonstrates symmetry breaking under sonication and the chiral-selective spin-filtering effect.

Anomalous Chiral Transfer: Supramolecular Polymerization in a Chiral Medium of a Mesogenic Molecule

Here, we report a medium-to-polymer anomalous chiral transfer in supramolecular polymerization of a tetraphenylporphyrinbased achiral hydrogen-bonding monomer ( TPP ) in a chiral medium of 5-cyanobiphenyl CB* . A mixture of TPP in ( R )- CB* ([ TPP ] = 7.7 mol%) at 40 °C gave a columnar oblique LC mesophase, where the individual columns were composed of an optically active helical supramolecular polymer of TPP as a consequence of a successful medium-to-polymer chiral transfer. Meanwhile, upon dilution of CB* with achiral 5-cyanobiphenyl CB , the optical activity of the system showed an anomalous bell-shaped dependency on the composition of CB* / CB , where the g abs value of 0.049 at CB* / CB = 50/50 was 6.0 times larger than the g abs value of CB* alone. Such anomalous chiroptical amplification in CD is most likely due to a change in the stacking geometry of TPP in the oblique columnar LC upon lateral compression.

Design and Control of Perylene Supramolecular Polymers through Imide Substitutions

The number and type of new supramolecular polymer (SMP) systems have increased rapidly in recent years. Some of the key challenges faced for these novel systems include gaining full control over the mode of self-assembly, the creation of novel architectures and exploring functionality. Here, we provide a critical overview of approaches related to perylene-based SMPs and discuss progress to exert control over these potentially important SMPs through chemical modification of the imide substituents. Imide substitutions affect self-assembly behaviour orthogonally to the intrinsic optoelectronic properties of the perylene core, making for a valuable approach to tune SMP properties. Several recent approaches are therefore highlighted, with a focus on controlling 1) morphology, 2) H- or J- aggregation, and 3) mechanism of growth and degree of aggregation using thermodynamic and kinetic control. Areas of potential future exploration and application of these functional SMPs are also explored.

Asymmetric living supramolecular polymerization of an achiral aza-BODIPY dye by solvent-mediated chirality induction and memory

The kinetic self-assembly properties of an achiral aza-BODIPY dye 1 bearing two hydrophobic fan-shaped tridodecyloxybenzamide pendants through 1,2,3-triazole linkages was investigated in detail in chiral solvents (S)- and (R)-limonene by...

Engineering Achiral Liquid Crystalline Polymers for Chiral Self-Recovery

Flexible construction of permanently stored supramolecular chirality with stimulus-responsiveness remains a big challenge. Herein, we describe an efficient method to realize the transfer and storage of chirality in intrinsically achiral films of a side-chain polymeric liquid crystal system by combining chiral doping and cross-linking strategy. Even the helical structure was destroyed by UV light irradiation, the memorized chiral information in the covalent network enabled complete self-recovery of the original chiral superstructure. These results allowed the building of a novel chiroptical switch without any additional chiral source in multiple types of liquid crystal polymers, which may be one of the competitive candidates for use in stimulus-responsive chiro-optical devices.

Spin Filtering in Supramolecular Polymers Assembled from Achiral Monomers Mediated by Chiral Solvents

In past studies, spin selective transport was observed in polymers and supramolecular structures that are based on homochiral building blocks possessing stereocenters. Here we address the question to what extent chiral building blocks are required for observing the chiral induced spin selectivity (CISS) effect. We demonstrate the CISS effect in supramolecular polymers exclusively containing achiral monomers, where the supramolecular chirality was induced by chiral solvents that were removed from the fibers before measuring. Spin-selective transport was observed for electrons transmitted perpendicular to the fibers’ long axis. The spin polarization correlates with the intensity of the CD spectra of the polymers, indicating that the effect is nonlocal. It is found that the spin polarization increases with the samples’ thickness and the thickness dependence is the result of at least two mechanisms: the first is the CISS effect, and the second reduces the spin polarization due to scattering. Temperature dependence studies provide the first support for theoretical work that suggested that phonons may contribute to the spin polarization.

Supramolecular gel formation regulated by water content in organic solvents: self-assembly mechanism and biomedical applications

As one of the most important and fruitful methods, supramolecular self-assembly has a significant advantage in designing and fabricating functional soft materials with various nanostructures. In this research, a low-molecular-weight gelator, N,N'-di(pyridin-4-yl)-pyridine-3,5-dicarboxamide (PDA-N4), was synthesized and used to construct self-assembled gels via a solvent-mediated strategy. It was found that PDA-N4 could form supramolecular gels in mixed solvents of water and DMSO (or DMF) at high water fraction (greater than or equal to 50%). By decreasing the water fraction from 50% to 30%, the gel, suspension and solution phases appeared successively, indicating that self-assembled aggregates could be efficiently modulated via water content in organic solvents. Moreover, the as-prepared PDA-N4 supramolecular gels not only displayed solid-like behavior, and pH- and thermo-reversible characteristics, but also showed a solution-gel-crystal transition with the extension of aging time. Further analyses suggested that both the crystal and gel had similar assembled structures. The intermolecular hydrogen bonding between amide groups and the π-π stacking interactions between pyridine groups played key roles in gel formation. Additionally, the release behavior of vitamin B12 (VB12) from PDA-N4 gel (H2O/DMSO, v/v = 90/10) was evaluated, and the drug controlled release process was consistent with a first-order release mechanism. The human umbilical venous endothelial cell culture results showed that the PDA-N4 xerogel has good cytocompatibility, which implied that the gels have potential biological application in tissue engineering and controlled drug release.

Competition between chiral solvents and chiral monomers in the helical bias of supramolecular polymers

Solute-solvent interactions are key for the assembly and proper functioning of biomacromolecules and play important roles in many fields of organic and polymer chemistry. Despite numerous reports describing the effects of (chiral) solvents on helical conformations of (supramolecular) polymers, the combination of chiral solvents and chiral monomers is unexplored. Here we report diastereomeric differences in the supramolecular polymerization of enantiomers of chiral triphenylene-2,6,10-tricarboxamides in chiral chlorinated solvents. Competition between the preferences induced by the stereocentres of the assembled monomers and those present in the solvent molecules results in unforeseen temperature-dependent solvation effects. By combining experiments and mathematical modelling, we show that the observed differences between enantiomers originate from the combined additive entropic effects of stereocentres present in the monomer and in the solvent. Remarkably, copolymerizations show that the chiral solvent can bias the copolymer helicity and thereby overrule the helical preference of the monomers. Our results highlight the importance of cumulative solvation effects in supramolecular polymerizations.

Solute-Solvent Interactions in Modern Physical Organic Chemistry: Supramolecular Polymers as a Muse

Interactions between solvents and solutes are a cornerstone of physical organic chemistry and have been the subject of investigations over the last century. In recent years, a renewed interest in fundamental aspects of solute-solvent interactions has been sparked in the field of supramolecular chemistry in general and that of supramolecular polymers in particular. Although solvent effects in supramolecular chemistry have been recognized for a long time, the unique opportunities that supramolecular polymers offer to gain insight into solute-solvent interactions have become clear relatively recently. The multiple interactions that hold the supramolecular polymeric structure together are similar in strength to those between solute and solvent. The cooperativity found in ordered supramolecular polymers leads to the possibility of amplifying these solute-solvent effects and will shed light on extremely subtle solvation phenomena. As a result, many exciting effects of solute-solvent interactions in modern physical organic chemistry can be studied using supramolecular polymers. Our aim is to put the recent progress into a historical context and provide avenues toward a more comprehensive understanding of solvents in multicomponent supramolecular systems.

Synthesis and Photocontrolled Supramolecular Self-Assembly of Azobenzene-Functionalized Perylene Bisimide Derivatives

Azobenzene (Azo) units were successfully introduced into perylene bisimide (PBI) structures in order to realize the photocontrolling of the morphology of the supramolecular assembly of PBI by a photoisomerization process. A total of three Azo-functionalized perylene bisimide derivatives (PBI1, PBI2, and PBI3) with different alkyl chain lengths were designed and synthesized by imidization of 3,4,9,10-perylene tetracarboxylic dianhydride with the corresponding amines. The structures of these compounds were characterized by proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H NMR) and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS). The photoisomerization behaviors of Azo units in PBIs were investigated using ultraviolet-visible (UV-VIS) absorption spectroscopy, which were obviously effected by solvents and the alkyl chain length. Furthermore, the photoisomerization of Azo units has the obviously regulatory effect on the morphology of supramolecular assembly of PBIs, especially for the medium-length alkyl chain-linked Azo-functionalized PBI derivative (PBI2). This research realized the photocontrolling of the morphology of the supramolecular assembly of PBI derivatives by photoisomerization of Azo units.

Perfluoroarene induces a pentapeptidic hydrotrope into a pH-tolerant hydrogel allowing naked eye sensing of Ca2+ ions

Self-assembly of a novel thermoresponsive, pyrene-appended oligopeptide sequence VPGKP (PyP) leads to the formation of spherical aggregates in water. The sizes of the globular aggregates of the peptide, PyP, strongly depend on the temperature of its suspension in water and decrease with the decrease in temperature showing a lower critical solution temperature (LCST) phenomenon. Furthermore, a pyrene-octafluoronaphthalene (OFN) 'pair' has been used as a supramolecular synthon to induce hydrogelation of PyP in the presence of an equimolar amount of OFN via complementary quadrupole-quadrupole interactions. The gel shows excellent pH tolerance and thixotropic behavior. Detailed studies suggest the existence of lamellar packing of the gelators in a right-handed helical fashion which yields globular aggregates. The globular aggregates are sticky in nature and form a gel via inter-globular interactions. Addition of Ca2+ ions reinforces the mechanical strength and also reduces the critical gelator concentration of the native gel through coordination with the free -COO- group of the gelator. Therefore, the present hydrogel system could further be used as a naked eye sensor of Ca2+ ions.

Temperature-controlled helical inversion of asymmetric triphenylamine-based supramolecular polymers; difference of handedness at the micro- and macroscopic levels

The M-helicity of asymmetric N-triphenylamine-based supramolecular polymers was inverted to the P-helicity during heating.

Different phase-dominated chiral assembly of polyfluorenes induced by chiral solvation: axial and supramolecular chirality

The introduction of chirality in an achiral system will not only help avoid the tedious and expensive synthesis of chiral substances or catalysts but also greatly expand the ranges of chiral compounds. Herein, the induction of chirality in achiral polyfluorene (PF2/6 and PF8) with different alkyl chains at the C9 position of fluorene was achieved using a binary solvent system, in which ethanol was used as a poor solvent and chiral limonene was employed simultaneously as a good solvent and chiral solvent. The circular dichroism (CD), UV-vis and photoluminescence (PL) spectra demonstrated that the structures of PFs with linear/branched alkyl side chains and the volume fractions of the cosolvents had an obvious effect on the generation of chirality driven by chiral solvation. During the chiral assembly processes of PFs, PF8 with a linear alkyl side chain demonstrated the obvious chiral β phase, while PF2/6 with a branched alkyl side chain only showed the chiral α phase. WAXD data also confirmed the existence of quite different phases of PF8 and PF2/6. The first induced chirality of PF with a branched alkyl side chain (PF2/6) will help the further understanding of the chiral assembly mechanism of PFs driven by chiral solvation. The induced chirality of PF2/6 was axial chirality of the PF chain but the chirality of PF8 was from the supramolecular chiral assembly of the PF chains. The linear dependence of the maximum CD and g_CD values on the enantiomeric purity of chiral limonene demonstrated that the achiral PFs have a potential application as chiral sensors to detect the ee value of limonene.

The chiral solvation induced chirality in achiral polyfluorenes showed the axial chirality for PF2/6 with branched side alkyl chain, but supramolecular chirality for PF8 with linear side alkyl chain.

Unraveling Mechanisms of Chiral Induction in Double-Helical Metallopolymers

Self-assembled helical polymers hold great promise as new functional materials, where helical handedness controls useful properties such as circularly polarized light emission or electron spin. The technique of subcomponent self-assembly can generate helical polymers from readily prepared monomers. Here we present three distinct strategies for chiral induction in double-helical metallopolymers prepared via subcomponent self-assembly: (1) employing an enantiopure monomer, (2) polymerization in a chiral solvent, (3) using an enantiopure initiating group. Kinetic and thermodynamic models were developed to describe the polymer growth mechanisms and quantify the strength of chiral induction, respectively. We found the degree of chiral induction to vary as a function of polymer length. Ordered, rod-like aggregates more than 70 nm long were also observed in the solid state. Our findings provide a basis to choose the most suitable method of chiral induction based on length, regiochemical, and stereochemical requirements, allowing stereochemical control to be established in easily accessible ways.

Bioinspired temporal supramolecular polymerization

Thriving natural systems precisely regulate their complex chemical organizations in space and time by recruitment of a complex network of fuel-driven, kinetically controlled, out-of-equilibrium transformations. Indeed this provides an active, adaptive and autonomous smart actions & functions. In contrast, synthetic systems exhibit simpler behavior owing to thermodynamically driven supramolecular polymerization with no temporal modulation of spatial organization. Stimulated by an outstanding control that nature demonstrates, a drive towards artificial out-of-equilibrium systems with the ambition to program activation and duration of structural transformations has emerged. To realize this vision, overwhelming efforts across the globe have been initiated to design temporally programmed synthetic supramolecular polymers. In an attempt to contribute to this trending field, our supramolecular chemistry group has thoroughly investigated a structure–property relationship that determines the mechanism of supramolecular polymerization. Exploiting these mechanistic insights, along with a bio-inspired fuel-driven enzyme mediated approach, we further attempted to program supramolecular polymers in both structural and temporal regimes. We believe, nature is the inspiration to the current era challenges and it also provides with the solution, a fuel-driven approach to address these. In this account, we shall discuss the efforts made by our group to build generic concept to create temporally programmable supramolecular polymers.

Nature's fuel-driven approach as a generic concept for structural and temporal regulation over biomimetic synthetic supramolecular polymerization.

Supramolecular gelatons: towards the design of molecular gels

The concept of supramolecular gelatons for the design of gels was proposed and described.

Living Supramolecular Polymerization of a Perylene Bisimide Dye into Fluorescent J-Aggregates

The self-assembly of a new perylene bisimide (PBI) organogelator with 1,7-dimethoxy substituents in the bay position affords non-fluorescent H-aggregates at high cooling rates and fluorescent J-aggregates at low cooling rates. Under properly adjusted conditions, the kinetically trapped "off-pathway" H-aggregates are transformed into the thermodynamically favored J-aggregates, a process that can be accelerated by the addition of J-aggregate seeds. Spectroscopic studies revealed a subtle interplay of π-π interactions and intra- and intermolecular hydrogen bonding for monomeric, H-, and J-aggregated PBIs. Multiple polymerization cycles initiated from the seed termini demonstrate the living character of this chain-growth supramolecular polymerization process.

Fabrication of chiroptically switchable films via co-gelation of a small chiral gelator with an achiral azobenzene-containing polymer

Helical polymers are widely found in nature and synthetic functional materials. Although a number of elaborate strategies have been developed to endow polymers with helicity through either covalent bonds or supramolecular techniques, it still remains a challenge to get the desired helical polymers with controlled handedness in an easy but effective manner. In this study, we report an easily accessible gelation-guided self-assembly system where the chirality of a gelator can be easily transferred to an achiral azobenzene-containing polymer during gelation. It is found that during the process of chiral induction, the induced chirality of the polymer was entirely dominated by the molecular chirality of the gelator. Experimentally, achiral azobenzene-containing polymers with different side-chain lengths were doped into a supramolecular gel system formed with amphiphilic N,N'-bis-(octadecyl)-l(d)-Boc-glutamic (LBG-18 or DBG-18 for short). CD spectra and SEM observation confirmed that the co-assembly of polymer/LBG-18 or polymer/DBG-18 in the xerogel state exhibited supramolecular chirality. More importantly, alternate UV and visible light irradiation on the xerogel film caused the induced CD signal to switch between on and off states. Thus a chiroptical switch was fabricated based on the isomerization of the azo-polymer in xerogel films.

Reversible helical chirality of perylene bisimide aggregates: amino acid-directed chiral transfer and chiral inversion

Through the formation of dynamic covalent bonds, we succeeded, for the first time, in achieving a reversible chiral transfer from amino acids to perylene bisimide aggregates in aqueous solutions. Two opposite helical aggregations are induced with l-phenylalanine and l-tyrosine, respectively. It is possible that the change in configurations of phenyl groups in amino acids leads to the chiral inversion of BAPBI arrangements.

High-fidelity self-assembly pathways for hydrogen-bonding molecular semiconductors

The design of molecular systems with high-fidelity self-assembly pathways that include several levels of hierarchy is of primary importance for the understanding of structure-function relationships, as well as for controlling the functionality of organic materials. Reported herein is a high-fidelity self-assembly system that comprises two hydrogen-bonding molecular semiconductors with regioisomerically attached short alkyl chains. Despite the availability of both discrete cyclic and polymeric linear hydrogen-bonding motifs, the two regioisomers select one of the two motifs in homogeneous solution as well as at the 2D-confined liquid-solid interface. This selectivity arises from the high directionality of the involved hydrogen-bonding interactions, which renders rerouting to other self-assembly pathways difficult. In thin films and in the bulk, the resulting hydrogen-bonded assemblies further organize into the expected columnar and lamellar higher-order architectures via solution processing. The contrasting organized structures of these regioisomers are reflected in their notably different miscibility with soluble fullerene derivatives in the solid state. Thus, electron donor-acceptor blend films deliver a distinctly different photovoltaic performance, despite their virtually identical intrinsic optoelectronic properties. Currently, we attribute this high-fidelity control via self-assembly pathways to the molecular design of these supramolecular semiconductors, which lacks structure-determining long aliphatic chains.

Supramolecular Helical Nanofibers Formed by Achiral Monomers and Their Reversible Sol-Gel Transition

Well-defined supramolecular helical nanofibers have been constructed by a rationally designed achiral monomer in aqueous solution based on the 1:2 host-guest combination between cucurbit[8]uril and a 4,4'-bipyridin-1-ium chloride (BPY⁺ ) salt derivative. The formed nanostructures could be adjusted by varying the concentration of monomer from helical nanofibers to a pH-responsive hydrogel.

Self-assembly of regenerated silk fibroin from random coil nanostructures to antiparallel β-sheet nanostructures

In this work, we studied the effects of incubation concentration and time on the self-assembly behaviors of regenerated silk fibroin (RSF). Our results showed the assembly ways of RSF were concentration-dependent and there were four self-assembly ways of RSF: (i) At relatively low concentration (≤0.015%), RSF molecules assembled into protofilaments (random coil), and then the thickness decreased and the secondary conformation changed to antiparallel β-sheet; (ii) at the concentration of 0.015%, RSF molecules assembled into protofilaments (random coil), and then assembled into protofibrils (antiparallel β-sheet). The protofibrils experienced the appearance and disappearance of phase periodic intervals in turn; (iii) at the concentration of 0.03%, RSF molecules assembled into bead-like oligomers (random coil), and then assembled into protofibrils (antiparallel β-sheet), and finally the height and phase periodic intervals of RSF protofibrils disappeared in turn; and (iv) at the relatively high concentration (≥0.15%), RSF molecules assembled into protofilaments (random coil), then aggregated into blurry cuboid-like micelles (random coil), and finally self-arranged to form smooth and clear cuboid-like micelles (antiparallel β-sheet). These results provide useful insights into the process by which the RSF molecules self-assemble into protofilaments, protofibrils and micelles. Furthermore, our work will be beneficial to basic understanding of the nanoscale structure formations in different silk-based biomaterials.

Chiral Nanoarchitectonics: Towards the Design, Self-Assembly, and Function of Nanoscale Chiral Twists and Helices

Helical structures such as double helical DNA and the α-helical proteins found in biological systems are among the most beautiful natural structures. Chiral nanoarchitectonics, which is used here to describe the hierarchical formation and fabrication of chiral nanoarchitectures that can be observed by atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning tunneling microscopy (STM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), or transmission electron microscopy (TEM), is one of the most effective ways to mimic those natural chiral nanostructures. This article focuses on the formation, structure, and function of the most common chiral nanoarchitectures: nanoscale chiral twists and helices. The types of molecules that can be designed and how they can form hierarchical chiral nanoarchitectures are explored. In addition, new and unique functions such as amplified chiral sensing, chiral separation, biological effects, and circularly polarized luminescence associated with the chiral nanoarchitectures are discussed.

A strategy for tuning achiral main-chain polymers into helical assemblies and chiral memory systems

A general strategy to tune the achiral main chain polymers into helical nanoassemblies was proposed based on the co-gelation approach. As an example, two achiral main chain polymers, PCz8 and PSi8, were selected, and their co-assembly with an amphiphilic l- or d-glutamide gelator was investigated. Although the polymers could not form gels individually, they could form co-gels with the gelator and the resultant gels exhibited macroscopic supramolecular chirality, which could be confirmed by CD spectra and SEM observations. Moreover, the supramolecular chirality can be memorized even after the gelator molecules were removed. Remarkably, either the gelator-containing or gelator-free chiral polymer assemblies showed circularly polarized luminescence (CPL), which is usually inherent to intrinsic chiral polymers. It was suggested that during the co-gelation, the chirality of the gelator was transferred to and memorized by the achiral polymers. The approach seems to be general and we provided the first example to tune the achiral polymers into helical assemblies through the co-gelation.

Impact of Alkyl Spacer Length on Aggregation Pathways in Kinetically Controlled Supramolecular Polymerization

We have investigated the kinetic and thermodynamic supramolecular polymerizations of a series of amide-functionalized perylene bisimide (PBI) organogelator molecules bearing alkyl spacers of varied lengths (ethylene to pentylene chains, PBI-1-C2 to PBI-1-C5) between the amide and PBI imide groups. These amide-functionalized PBIs form one-dimensional fibrous nanostructures as the thermodynamically favored states in solvents of low polarity. Our in-depth studies revealed, however, that the kinetic behavior of their supramolecular polymerization is dependent on the spacer length. Propylene- and pentylene-tethered PBIs follow a similar polymerization process as previously observed for the ethylene-tethered PBI. Thus, the monomers of these PBIs are kinetically trapped in conformationally restricted states through intramolecular hydrogen bonding between the amide and imide groups. In contrast, the intramolecularly hydrogen-bonded monomers of butylene-tethered PBI spontaneously self-assemble into nanoparticles, which constitute an off-pathway aggregate state with regard to the thermodynamically stable fibrous supramolecular polymers obtained. Thus, for this class of π-conjugated system, an unprecedented off-pathway aggregate with high kinetic stability could be realized for the first time by introducing an alkyl linker of optimum length (C4 chain) between the amide and imide groups. Our current system with an energy landscape of two competing nucleated aggregation pathways is applicable to the kinetic control over the supramolecular polymerization by the seeding approach.

Mechanism of self-assembly process and seeded supramolecular polymerization of perylene bisimide organogelator

The mechanism of supramolecular polymerization has been elucidated for an archetype organogelator molecule composed of a perylene bisimide aromatic scaffold and two amide substituents. This molecule self-assembles into elongated one-dimensional nanofibers through a cooperative nucleation-growth process. Thermodynamic and kinetic analyses have been applied to discover conditions (temperature, solvent, concentration) where the spontaneous nucleation can be retarded by trapping of the monomers in an inactive conformation, leading to lag times up to more than 1 h. The unique kinetics in the nucleation process was confirmed as a thermal hysteresis in a cycle of assembly and disassembly processes. Under appropriate conditions within the hysteresis loop, addition of preassembled nanofiber seeds leads to seeded polymerization from the termini of the seeds in a living supramolecular polymerization process. These results demonstrate that seeded polymerizations are not limited to special situations where off-pathway aggregates sequester the monomeric reactant species but may be applicable to a large number of known and to be developed molecules from the large family of molecules that self-assemble into one-dimensional nanofibrous structures. Generalizing from the mechanistic insight into our seeded polymerization, we assert that a cooperative nucleation-growth supramolecular polymerization accompanied by thermal hysteresis can be controlled in a living manner.

Chiral perylene diimides: building blocks for ionic self-assembly

A chiral perylene diimide building block has been prepared based on an amine derivative of the amino acid l‐phenylalanine. Detailed studies were carried out into the self‐assembly behaviour of the material in solution and the solid state using UV/Vis, circular dichroism (CD) and fluorescence spectroscopy. For the charged building block BTPPP, the molecular chirality of the side chains is translated into the chiral supramolecular structure in the form of right‐handed helical aggregates in aqueous solution. Temperature‐dependent UV/Vis studies of BTPPP in aqueous solution showed that the self‐assembly behaviour of this dye can be well described by an isodesmic model in which aggregation occurs to generate short stacks in a reversible manner. Wide‐angle X‐ray diffraction studies (WXRD) revealed that this material self‐organises into aggregates with π–π stacking distances typical for π‐conjugated materials. TEM investigations revealed the formation of self‐assembled structures of low order and with no expression of chirality evident. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and polarised optical microscopy (POM) were used to investigate the mesophase properties. Optical textures representative of columnar liquid–crystalline phases were observed for solvent‐annealed samples of BTPPP. The high solubility, tunable self‐assembly and chiral ordering of these materials demonstrate their potential as new molecular building blocks for use in the construction of chiro‐optical structures and devices.

Metallogels self-assembled from linear rod-like platinum complexes: influence of the linkage

Two linear rod-like platinum complexes, which only differed in the linkage, were prepared. They both self-assemble into metallogels in nonpolar solvents; however, a very big contrast was observed. Unexpectedly, a much weaker gel was acquired upon replacing the ester linkage by an amide group. The intermolecular hydrogen bonding offered by the amide motif leads to a different stacking fashion and mechanism. The results demonstrated herein contribute to the rational design of metallogels as well as other functional supramolecular materials.