On the role of pre- and post-electron-transfer steps in the SmI2 /amine/H(2)O-mediated reduction of esters: new mechanistic insights and kinetic studies

Diastereoselective Radical 1,4-Ester Migration: Radical Cyclizations of Acyclic Esters with SmI2

Reductive cyclizations of carbonyl compounds, mediated by samarium(II) diiodide (SmI₂, Kagan’s reagent), represent an invaluable platform to generate molecular complexity in a stereocontrolled manner. In addition to classical ketone and aldehyde substrates, recent advances in radical chemistry allow the cyclization of lactone and lactam-type substrates using SmI₂. In contrast, acyclic esters are considered to be unreactive to SmI₂ and their participation in reductive cyclizations is unprecedented. Here, we report a diastereoselective radical 1,4-ester migration process, mediated by SmI₂, that delivers stereodefined alkene hydrocarboxylation products via radical cyclization of acyclic ester groups in α-carbomethoxy δ-lactones. Isotopic labeling experiments and computational studies have been used to probe the mechanism of the migration. We propose that a switch in conformation redirects single electron transfer from SmI₂ to the acyclic ester group, rather than the “more reactive” lactone carbonyl. Our study paves the way for the use of elusive ketyl radicals, derived from acyclic esters, in SmI₂-mediated reductive cyclizations.

Samarium Iodide Showcase: Unraveling the Mechanistic Puzzle

SmI₂ was introduced to organic chemistry as a single electron transfer agent in 1977. After ca. 15 years of latency, the scientific community has realized the high potential of this reagent, and its chemistry has started blooming. This versatile reagent has mediated a myriad of new bond formations, cyclizations, and other reactions. Its popularity stems largely from the fact that three different intermediates, radical anions, radicals, and anions, depending on the ligand or additive used, could be obtained. Each of these intermediates could in principle lead to a different product. While these options vastly enrich the repertoire of SmI₂, they necessitate a thorough mechanistic understanding, especially concerning how appropriate ligands direct the SmI₂ to the desired intermediate. Our first paper on this subject dealt with the reduction of an activated double bond. The results were puzzling, especially the H/D isotope effect, which depended on the order of the reagents addition. This seminal paper was fundamental to an understanding of how the SmI₂ works and enabled us to later explain various phenomena. For example, it was found that in a given reaction, when MeOH is used as a proton source, a spiro compound is obtained, while a bicyclic product is obtained when t-BuOH is used. Our contribution culminated in formulating guidelines for the rational use of proton donors in SmI₂ reactions.

The need to understand the complexity of the effect of additives on various processes is nicely demonstrated in photoinduced reactions. For example, hexamethylphosphoramide (HMPA) enhances the reduction of anthracene while hampering the reaction of benzyl chloride. The mechanistic understanding gained enabled us also to broaden the scope of photostimulated reactions from substrates reacting by a dissociative electron transfer mechanism to normal reductions, which are difficult to accomplish at the ground state. Harnessing the classical knowledge of proton transfer mechanisms to our SmI₂ research enabled us to decipher an old conundrum: why does the combination of water and amine have such an enhancing effect on the reactivity of SmI_2, which is not typical of these two when used separately. In our studies on the affinity of ligands to SmI₂, we discovered that, in contradistinction to the accepted dogma, SmI₂ is much more azaphilic than it is oxophilic. On the basis of the size difference between Sm³⁺ and Sm²⁺, we developed a simple diagnostic tool for the nature of the steps following the electron transfer. The reduction of imines showed that substrate affinity to SmI₂ plays also a crucial role. In these reactions, new features such as autocatalysis and catalysis by quantum dots were discovered. Several studies of the ligand effect lead to a clear formulation of when an inner sphere or outer sphere electron transfer should be expected. In addition, several reactions where proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) is the dominant mechanism were identified. Finally, the surprisingly old tool of NMR “shift reagents” was rediscovered and used to directly derive essential information on the binding constants of ligands and substrates to SmI₂.

Proton-coupled electron transfer in the reduction of carbonyls using SmI2–H2O: implications for the reductive coupling of acyl-type ketyl radicals with SmI2–H2O

The feasibility of concerted PCET in the reduction of carbonyl groups using SmI₂–H₂O is quantitatively assessed.

Sm(II)-Mediated Electron Transfer to Carboxylic Acid Derivatives: Development of Complexity-Generating Cascades

Reductive electron transfer (ET) to organic compounds is a powerful method for the activation of substrates via the formation of radicals, radical anions, anions, and dianions that can be exploited in bond-cleaving and bond-forming processes. Since its introduction to the synthetic community in 1977 by Kagan, SmI2 has become one of the most important reducing agents available in the laboratory. Despite its widespread application in aldehyde and ketone reduction, it was widely accepted that carboxylic acid derivatives could not be reduced by SmI2; only recently has our work led to this dogma being overturned, and the reduction of carboxylic acid derivatives using SmI2 can now take its place alongside aldehyde/ketone reduction as a powerful activation mode for synthesis. In this Account, we set out our studies of the reduction of carboxylic acid derivatives using SmI2, SmI2-H2O, and SmI2-H2O-NR3 and the exploitation of the unusual radical anions that are now accessible in unprecedented carbon-carbon bond-forming processes. The Account begins with our serendipitous discovery that SmI2 mixed with H2O is able to reduce six-membered lactones to diols, a transformation previously thought to be impossible. After the successful development of selective monoreductions of Meldrum's acid and barbituric acid heterocyclic feedstocks, we then identified the SmI2-H2O-NR3 reagent system for the efficient reduction of a range of acyclic carboxylic acid derivatives that typically present a significant challenge for ET reductants. Mechanistic studies have led us to propose a common mechanism for the reduction of carboxylic acid derivatives using Sm(II), with only subtle changes observed as the carboxylic acid derivative and Sm(II) reagent system are varied. At the center of our postulated mechanism is the proposed reversibility of the first ET to the carbonyl of carboxylic acid derivatives, and this led us to devise several strategies that allow the radical anion intermediates to be exploited productively in efficient new processes. First, we have used internal directing groups in substrates to "switch on" productive ET to esters and amides and have exploited such an approach in tag-removal cyclization processes that deliver molecular scaffolds of significance in biology and materials science. Second, we have exploited external ligands to facilitate ET to carboxylic acid derivatives and have applied the strategy in telescoped reaction sequences. Finally, we have employed follow-up cyclizations with alkenes, alkynes, and allenes to intercept radical anion intermediates formed along the reaction path and have employed this strategy in complexity-generating cascade approaches to biologically significant molecular architectures. From our studies, it is now clear that Sm(II)-mediated ET to carboxylic acid derivatives constitutes a general strategy for inverting the polarity of the carbonyl, allowing nucleophilic carbon-centered radicals to be formed and exploited in novel chemical processes.

Allylsamarium Bromide-Mediated Cascade Cyclization of Homoallylic Esters. Synthesis of 2-(2-Hydroxyalkyl)cyclopropanols and 2-(2-Hydroxyethyl)bicyclo[2.1.1]hexan-1-ols

In continuation of our previous study on the intramolecular reductive coupling of simple homoallylic esters promoted by allylSmBr/HMPA/H2O, which afforded a facile synthesis of 2-(2-hydroxyalkyl)cyclopropanols, here we report the reductive cascade cyclization of but-3-enyl but-3-enoates mediated by allylSmBr/HMPA/CuCl2·2H2O, in which the two C═C bonds were successively coupled to allow the construction of the structurally interesting bridged bicyclic tertiary alcohols. Thus, the 2-(2-hydroxyethyl)bicyclo[2.1.1]hexan-1-ols were prepared in moderate to good yields with excellent diastereoselectivity.

SmI2-H2O-mediated 5-exo/6-exo lactone radical cyclisation cascades

The SmI2-H2O reagent system mediates challenging 5-exo/6-exo lactone radical cascade cyclisations that deliver carbo[5.4.0]bicyclic motifs in a diastereoselective, one-pot process that establish two new carbocyclic rings and four stereocentres.