Abstract
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SmI2 was introduced to organic chemistry as a single
electron transfer agent in 1977. After ca. 15 years of latency, the
scientific community has realized the high potential of this reagent,
and its chemistry has started blooming. This versatile reagent has
mediated a myriad of new bond formations, cyclizations, and other
reactions. Its popularity stems largely from the fact that three different
intermediates, radical anions, radicals, and anions, depending on
the ligand or additive used, could be obtained. Each of these intermediates
could in principle lead to a different product. While these options
vastly enrich the repertoire of SmI2, they necessitate
a thorough mechanistic understanding, especially concerning how appropriate
ligands direct the SmI2 to the desired intermediate. Our
first paper on this subject dealt with the reduction of an activated
double bond. The results were puzzling, especially the H/D isotope
effect, which depended on the order of the reagents addition. This
seminal paper was fundamental to an understanding of how the SmI2 works and enabled us to later explain various phenomena.
For example, it was found that in a given reaction, when MeOH is used
as a proton source, a spiro compound is obtained, while a bicyclic
product is obtained when t-BuOH is used. Our contribution
culminated in formulating guidelines for the rational use of proton
donors in SmI2 reactions.
The need to understand
the complexity of the effect of additives
on various processes is nicely demonstrated in photoinduced reactions.
For example, hexamethylphosphoramide (HMPA) enhances the reduction
of anthracene while hampering the reaction of benzyl chloride. The
mechanistic understanding gained enabled us also to broaden the scope
of photostimulated reactions from substrates reacting by a dissociative
electron transfer mechanism to normal reductions, which are difficult
to accomplish at the ground state. Harnessing the classical knowledge
of proton transfer mechanisms to our SmI2 research enabled
us to decipher an old conundrum: why does the combination of water
and amine have such an enhancing effect on the reactivity of SmI2, which is not typical of these two when used separately.
In our studies on the affinity of ligands to SmI2, we discovered
that, in contradistinction to the accepted dogma, SmI2 is
much more azaphilic than it is oxophilic. On the basis of the size
difference between Sm3+ and Sm2+, we developed
a simple diagnostic tool for the nature of the steps following the
electron transfer. The reduction of imines showed that substrate affinity
to SmI2 plays also a crucial role. In these reactions,
new features such as autocatalysis and catalysis by quantum dots were
discovered. Several studies of the ligand effect lead to a clear formulation
of when an inner sphere or outer sphere electron transfer should be
expected. In addition, several reactions where proton-coupled electron
transfer (PCET) is the dominant mechanism were identified. Finally,
the surprisingly old tool of NMR “shift reagents” was
rediscovered and used to directly derive essential information on
the binding constants of ligands and substrates to SmI2.
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