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Qianzhu H, Abdelkader EH, Otting G, Huber T. Genetic Encoding of Fluoro-l-tryptophans for Site-Specific Detection of Conformational Heterogeneity in Proteins by NMR Spectroscopy. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:13641-13650. [PMID: 38687675 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.4c03743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2024]
Abstract
The substitution of a single hydrogen atom in a protein by fluorine yields a site-specific probe for sensitive detection by 19F nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, where the absence of background signal from the protein facilitates the detection of minor conformational species. We developed genetic encoding systems for the site-selective incorporation of 4-fluorotryptophan, 5-fluorotryptophan, 6-fluorotryptophan, and 7-fluorotryptophan in response to an amber stop codon and used them to investigate conformational heterogeneity in a designed amino acid binding protein and in flaviviral NS2B-NS3 proteases. These proteases have been shown to present variable conformations in X-ray crystal structures, including flips of the indole side chains of tryptophan residues. The 19F NMR spectra of different fluorotryptophan isomers installed at the conserved site of Trp83 indicate that the indole ring flip is common in flaviviral NS2B-NS3 proteases in the apo state and suppressed by an active-site inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haocheng Qianzhu
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Elwy H Abdelkader
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide & Protein Science, Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Gottfried Otting
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide & Protein Science, Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Thomas Huber
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
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2
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Phạm TTT, Murza A, Marsault É, Frampton JP, Rainey JK. Localized apelin-17 analogue-bicelle interactions as a facilitator of membrane-catalyzed receptor recognition and binding. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. BIOMEMBRANES 2024; 1866:184289. [PMID: 38278504 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2024.184289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Accepted: 01/18/2024] [Indexed: 01/28/2024]
Abstract
The apelinergic system encompasses two peptide ligand families, apelin and apela, along with the apelin receptor (AR or APJ), a class A G-protein-coupled receptor. This system has diverse physiological effects, including modulating heart contraction, vasodilation/constriction, glucose regulation, and vascular development, with involvement in a variety of pathological conditions. Apelin peptides have been previously shown to interact with and become structured upon binding to anionic micelles, consistent with a membrane-catalyzed mechanism of ligand-receptor binding. To overcome the challenges of observing nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy signals of a dilute peptide in biological environments, 19F NMR spectroscopy, including diffusion ordered spectroscopy (DOSY) and saturation transfer difference (STD) experiments, was used herein to explore the membrane-interactive behaviour of apelin. NMR-optimized apelin-17 analogues with 4-trifluoromethyl-phenylalanine at various positions were designed and tested for bioactivity through ERK activation in stably-AR transfected HEK 293 T cells. Far-UV circular dichroism (CD) spectropolarimetry and 19F NMR spectroscopy were used to compare the membrane interactions of these analogues with unlabelled apelin-17 in both zwitterionic/neutral and net-negative bicelle conditions. Each analogue binds to bicelles with relatively weak affinity (i.e., in fast exchange on the NMR timescale), with preferential interactions observed at the cationic residue-rich N-terminal and mid-length regions of the peptide leaving the C-terminal end unencumbered for receptor recognition, enabling a membrane-anchored fly-casting mechanism of peptide search for the receptor. In all, this study provides further insight into the membrane-interactive behaviour of an important bioactive peptide, demonstrating interactions and biophysical behaviour that cannot be neglected in therapeutic design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trần Thanh Tâm Phạm
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Alexandre Murza
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Institut de Pharmacologie de Sherbrooke, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Éric Marsault
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Institut de Pharmacologie de Sherbrooke, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - John P Frampton
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada; School of Biomedical Engineering, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Jan K Rainey
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada; School of Biomedical Engineering, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada; Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada.
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3
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Maxwell M, Tan YJ, Lee R, Huber T, Otting G. Electrostatic Contribution to 19F Chemical Shifts in Fluorotryptophans in Proteins. Biochemistry 2023; 62:3255-3264. [PMID: 37934875 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.3c00408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2023]
Abstract
DFT calculations indicate that the 19F chemical shifts of aromatic rings containing single fluorine substituents are sensitive to the electric fields and electric field gradients at the position of the fluorine atom. The present work explores whether long-range structure restraints can be gained from changes in 19F chemical shifts following mutations of charged to uncharged residues. 19F chemical shifts of fluorotryptophan residues were measured in two different proteins, GB1 and the NT* domain, following mutations of single asparagine residues to aspartic acid. Four different versions of fluorotryptophan were investigated, including 4-, 5-, 6-, and 7-fluorotryptophan, which were simultaneously installed by cell-free protein synthesis using 4-, 5-, 6-, and 7-fluoroindole as precursors for the tryptophan synthase present in the S30 extract. For comparison, the 1H chemical shifts of the corresponding nonfluorinated protein mutants produced with 13C-labeled tryptophan were also measured. The results show that the 19F chemical shifts respond more sensitively to the charge mutations than the 1H chemical shifts in the nonfluorinated references, but the chemical shift changes were much smaller than predicted by DFT calculations of fluoroindoles in the electric field of a partial charge in vacuum, indicating comprehensive dielectric shielding by water and protein. No straightforward correlation with the location of the charge mutation could be established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Maxwell
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Yi Jiun Tan
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Richmond Lee
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, University of Wollongong, Wollongong 2500, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Thomas Huber
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Gottfried Otting
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra 2601, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
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Prosser RS, Alonzi NA. Discerning conformational dynamics and binding kinetics of GPCRs by 19F NMR. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2023; 72:102377. [PMID: 37612172 DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2023.102377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/25/2023]
Abstract
19F NMR provides a way of monitoring conformational dynamics of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) from the perspective of an ensemble. While X-ray crystallography provides exquisitely resolved high-resolution structures of specific states, it generally does not recapitulate the true ensemble of functional states. Fluorine (19F) NMR provides a highly sensitive spectroscopic window into the conformational ensemble, generally permitting the direct quantification of resolvable states. Moreover, straightforward T1- and T2-based relaxation experiments allow for the study of fluctuations within a given state and exchange between states, on timescales spanning nanoseconds to seconds. Conveniently, most biological systems are free of fluorine. Thus, via fluorinated amino acid analogues or thiol-reactive fluorinated tags, F or CF3 reporters can be site specifically incorporated into proteins of interest. In this review, fluorine labeling protocols and 19F NMR experiments will be presented, from the perspective of small molecule NMR (i.e. drug or small molecule interactions with receptors) or macromolecular NMR (i.e. conformational dynamics of receptors and receptor-G-protein complexes).
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Affiliation(s)
- R S Prosser
- Chemistry Department, University of Toronto, CPS UTM, Davis Building, Rm 4052, 3359 Mississauga Rd North, Mississauga, Ontario, L5L 1C6, Canada; Biochemistry Department, University of Toronto, CPS UTM, Davis Building, Rm 4052, 3359 Mississauga Rd North, Mississauga, Ontario, L5L 1C6, Canada.
| | - Nicholas A Alonzi
- Chemistry Department, University of Toronto, CPS UTM, Davis Building, Rm 4052, 3359 Mississauga Rd North, Mississauga, Ontario, L5L 1C6, Canada
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Maus H, Hammerschmidt SJ, Hinze G, Barthels F, Pérez Carrillo VH, Hellmich UA, Basché T, Schirmeister T. The effects of allosteric and competitive inhibitors on ZIKV protease conformational dynamics explored through smFRET, nanoDSF, DSF, and 19F NMR. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 258:115573. [PMID: 37379675 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023]
Abstract
Zika and dengue viruses cause mosquito-borne diseases of high epidemic relevance. The viral NS2B-NS3 proteases play crucial roles in the pathogen replication cycle and are validated drug targets. They can adopt at least two conformations depending on the position of the NS2B cofactor. Recently, we reported ligand-induced conformational changes of dengue virus NS2B-NS3 protease by single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer (smFRET). Here, we investigated the conformational dynamics of the homologous Zika virus protease through an integrated methodological approach combining smFRET, thermal shift assays (DSF and nanoDSF) and 19F NMR spectroscopy. Our results show that allosteric inhibitors favor the open conformation and competitive inhibitors stabilize the closed conformation of the Zika virus protease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah Maus
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences (IPBW), Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Stefan J Hammerschmidt
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences (IPBW), Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Gerald Hinze
- Department of Chemistry, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Fabian Barthels
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences (IPBW), Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Victor H Pérez Carrillo
- Institute of Organic Chemistry & Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Ute A Hellmich
- Institute of Organic Chemistry & Macromolecular Chemistry (IOMC), Friedrich Schiller University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | - Thomas Basché
- Department of Chemistry, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Tanja Schirmeister
- Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences (IPBW), Johannes Gutenberg-University, Mainz, Germany.
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Maleckis A, Herath ID, Otting G. Synthesis of 13C/ 19F/ 2H labeled indoles for use as tryptophan precursors for protein NMR spectroscopy. Org Biomol Chem 2021; 19:5133-5147. [PMID: 34032255 DOI: 10.1039/d1ob00611h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Synthesis of indoles labeled with 13C-1H and 13C-19F spin pairs is described. All syntheses utilize inexpensive carbon-13C dioxide as the 13C isotope source. Ruthenium-mediated ring-closing metathesis is the key step in construction of the 13C containing indole carbocycle. Fluorine is introduced via electrophilic fluorination at the 7-position and via palladium-mediated cross-coupling at the 4-position. Indole and fluoroindoles are viable tryptophan precursors for in vivo protein expression. We show that they are viable also in in vitro protein synthesis using standard E. coli S30 extracts. Incorporation of the synthesized 13C-1H and 13C-19F spin pair labeled tryptophans into proteins enables high-resolution and high-sensitivity nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ansis Maleckis
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles 21, LV-1006, Riga, Latvia.
| | - Iresha D Herath
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide & Protein Science, Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.
| | - Gottfried Otting
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide & Protein Science, Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia.
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Picard LP, Prosser RS. Advances in the study of GPCRs by 19F NMR. Curr Opin Struct Biol 2021; 69:169-176. [PMID: 34130235 DOI: 10.1016/j.sbi.2021.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2021] [Revised: 04/18/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Crystallography and cryo-electron microscopy have advanced atomic resolution perspectives of inactive and active states of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), alone and in complex with G proteins or arrestin. 19F NMR can play a role in ascertaining activation mechanisms and understanding the complete energy landscape associated with signal transduction. Fluorinated reporters are introduced biosynthetically via fluorinated amino acid analogs or chemically, via thiol-specific fluorinated reporters. The chemical shift sensitivity of these reporters makes it possible to discern details of conformational ensembles. In addition to spectroscopic details, paramagnetic species can be incorporated through orthogonal techniques to obtain distance information on fluorinated reporters, while T2-and T1-based relaxation experiments provide details on exchange kinetics in addition to fluctuations within a given state.
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Phạm TTT, Rainey JK. On-cell nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy to probe cell surface interactions. Biochem Cell Biol 2021; 99:683-692. [PMID: 33945753 DOI: 10.1139/bcb-2021-0052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy allows determination of atomic-level information about intermolecular interactions, molecular structure, and molecular dynamics in the cellular environment. This may be broadly divided into studies focused on obtaining detailed molecular information in the intracellular context ("in-cell") or those focused on characterizing molecules or events at the cell surface ("on-cell"). In this review, we outline some key NMR techniques applied for on-cell NMR studies through both solution-state and solid-state NMR and survey studies that have used these techniques to uncover key information. We particularly focus on application of on-cell NMR spectroscopy to characterize ligand interactions with cell surface membrane proteins such as G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), receptor tyrosine kinases, etc. These techniques allow for quantification of binding affinities, competitive binding assays, delineation of portions of ligands involved in binding, ligand bound-state conformational determination, evaluation of receptor structuring and dynamics, and inference of distance constraints characteristic of the ligand-receptor bound state. Excitingly, it is possible to avoid the barriers of production and purification of membrane proteins while obtaining directly physiologically-relevant information through on-cell NMR. We also provide a briefer survey of the applicability of on-cell NMR approaches to other classes of cell surface molecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trần Thanh Tâm Phạm
- Dalhousie University, 3688, Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada;
| | - Jan K Rainey
- Dalhousie University, 3688, Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Halifax, Canada;
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Fluorine-19 NMR spectroscopy of fluorinated analogs of tritrpticin highlights a distinct role for Tyr residues in antimicrobial peptides. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2020; 1862:183260. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2020.183260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Ycas PD, Wagner N, Olsen NM, Fu R, Pomerantz WCK. 2-Fluorotyrosine is a valuable but understudied amino acid for protein-observed 19F NMR. JOURNAL OF BIOMOLECULAR NMR 2020; 74:61-69. [PMID: 31760571 DOI: 10.1007/s10858-019-00290-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Accepted: 11/13/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Incorporation of 19F into proteins allows for the study of their molecular interactions via NMR. The study of 19F labeled aromatic amino acids has largely focused on 4-,5-, or 6-fluorotryptophan, 4-fluorophenylalanine, (4,5, or 6FW) or 3-fluorotyrosine (3FY), whereas 2-fluorotyrosine (2FY) has remained largely understudied. Here we report a comparative analysis with different fluorinated amino acids. We first report the NMR chemical shift responsiveness of five aromatic amino acid mimics to changes in solvent polarity and find that the most responsive, a mimic of 3FY, has a 2.9-fold greater change in chemical shift compared to the other amino acid mimics in aprotic solvents including the 2FY mimic. We also probed the utility of 2FY for 19F NMR by measuring its NMR relaxation properties in solution and the chemical shift anisotropy (CSA) of a polycrystalline sample of the amino acid by magic angle spinning. Using protein-observed fluorine NMR (PrOF NMR), we compared the influence of 2FY and 3FY incorporation on stability and pKa perturbation when incorporated into the KIX domain of CBP/p300. Lastly, we investigated the 19F NMR response of both 2FY and 3FY-labeled proteins to a protein-protein interaction partner, MLL, and discovered that 2FY can report on allosteric interactions that are not observed with 3FY-labeling in this protein complex. The reduced perturbation to pKa and similar but reduced CSA of 2FY to 3FY supports 2FY as a suitable alternative amino acid for incorporation into large proteins for 19F NMR analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter D Ycas
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant St. SE, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Nicole Wagner
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant St. SE, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Noelle M Olsen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant St. SE, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Riqiang Fu
- National High Magnetic Field Lab, 1800 East Paul Dirac Dr., Tallahassee, FL, 32310, USA
| | - William C K Pomerantz
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant St. SE, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA.
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Simmons JR, Murza A, Lumsden MD, Kenward C, Marsault É, Rainey JK. Simultaneous Ligand and Receptor Tracking through NMR Spectroscopy Enabled by Distinct 19F Labels. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20153658. [PMID: 31357423 PMCID: PMC6696318 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20153658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Revised: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
To probe ligand-receptor binding at the atomic-level, a frequent approach involves multidimensional nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy experiments relying on 13C- and/or 15N-enrichment alongside 1H. Alternatively, the lack of fluorine in biomolecules may be exploited through specific incorporation of 19F nuclei into a sample. The 19F nucleus is highly sensitive to environmental changes and allows for one-dimensional NMR spectroscopic study, with perturbation to chemical shift and spin dynamics diagnostic of structural change, ligand binding, and modified conformational sampling. This was applied to the apelinergic system, which comprises a rhodopsin-like G protein-coupled receptor (the apelin receptor (AR)/APJ) and two families of cognate ligands, the apelin and apela (ELABELA/toddler) peptides. Specifically, AR fragments consisting of either the N-terminal tail and first transmembrane (TM) α-helix (AR55) or the first three transmembrane α-helices (TM1-3) were prepared with biosynthetic fluorotryptophan incorporation. Interactions of each AR fragment with a high-affinity, 2,4,5-trifluorophenylalanine labeled apelin analogue were compared by 19F NMR. Distinct ranges of 19F chemical shifts for ligand and receptor provide unambiguous tracking of both species, with distinct binding behaviour observed for each AR fragment implying that AR55 is not sufficient to recapitulate the physiological binding event. Site-specific perturbation was also apparent for the apelin analogue as a function of substitution site, indicating an orientational binding preference. As a whole, this strategy of distinctive 19F labelling for ligand and receptor provides a relatively fast (i.e., employing 1D NMR experiments) and highly sensitive method to simultaneously and definitively track binding in both species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey R Simmons
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Alexandre Murza
- Institut de Pharmacologie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology-Physiology, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Michael D Lumsden
- Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Calem Kenward
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Éric Marsault
- Institut de Pharmacologie, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada
- Department of Pharmacology-Physiology, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, QC J1H 5N4, Canada
| | - Jan K Rainey
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada.
- Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS B3H 4R2, Canada.
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Di Pietrantonio C, Pandey A, Gould J, Hasabnis A, Prosser RS. Understanding Protein Function Through an Ensemble Description: Characterization of Functional States by 19F NMR. Methods Enzymol 2019; 615:103-130. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2018.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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