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Zhang Z, Wang Z, Liu T, Tang J, Liu Y, Gou T, Chen K, Wang L, Zhang J, Yang Y, Zhang H. Exploring the role of ITGB6: fibrosis, cancer, and other diseases. Apoptosis 2024; 29:570-585. [PMID: 38127283 DOI: 10.1007/s10495-023-01921-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Integrin β6 (ITGB6), a member of the integrin family of proteins, is only present in epithelial tissues and frequently associates with integrin subunit αv to form transmembrane heterodimers named integrin αvβ6. Importantly, ITGB6 determines αvβ6 expression and availability. In addition to being engaged in organ fibrosis, ITGB6 is also directly linked to the emergence of cancer, periodontitis, and several potential genetic diseases. Therefore, it is of great significance to study the molecular-biological mechanism of ITGB6, which could provide novel insights for future clinical diagnosis and therapy. This review introduces the structure, distribution, and biological function of ITGB6. This review also expounds on ITGB6-related diseases, detailing the known biological effects of ITGB6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Northwest University, Northwest University, Xi'an No.3 Hospital, Xi'an, 710021, China
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Faulty of Life Sciences and Medicine, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, 229 Taibai North Road, Xi'an, 710069, China
| | - Zheng Wang
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, Central Theater Command General Hospital of Chinese People's Liberation Army, 627 Wuluo Road, Wuhan, 430070, China
| | - Tong Liu
- Department of Cardiology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Northwest University, Northwest University, Xi'an No.3 Hospital, Xi'an, 710021, China
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Faulty of Life Sciences and Medicine, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, 229 Taibai North Road, Xi'an, 710069, China
| | - Jiayou Tang
- Department of Cardiovascular Surgery, Xijing Hospital, The Fourth Military Medical University, 127 Changle West Road, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Yanqing Liu
- Department of Cardiology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Northwest University, Northwest University, Xi'an No.3 Hospital, Xi'an, 710021, China
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Faulty of Life Sciences and Medicine, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, 229 Taibai North Road, Xi'an, 710069, China
| | - Tiantian Gou
- Department of Cardiology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Northwest University, Northwest University, Xi'an No.3 Hospital, Xi'an, 710021, China
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Faulty of Life Sciences and Medicine, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, 229 Taibai North Road, Xi'an, 710069, China
| | - Kangli Chen
- Department of Cardiology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Northwest University, Northwest University, Xi'an No.3 Hospital, Xi'an, 710021, China
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Faulty of Life Sciences and Medicine, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, 229 Taibai North Road, Xi'an, 710069, China
| | - Li Wang
- Department of Cardiology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Northwest University, Northwest University, Xi'an No.3 Hospital, Xi'an, 710021, China
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Faulty of Life Sciences and Medicine, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, 229 Taibai North Road, Xi'an, 710069, China
| | - Juan Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Northwest University, Northwest University, Xi'an No.3 Hospital, Xi'an, 710021, China
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Faulty of Life Sciences and Medicine, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, 229 Taibai North Road, Xi'an, 710069, China
| | - Yang Yang
- Department of Cardiology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Northwest University, Northwest University, Xi'an No.3 Hospital, Xi'an, 710021, China.
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Faulty of Life Sciences and Medicine, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, 229 Taibai North Road, Xi'an, 710069, China.
| | - Huan Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, Faculty of Life Sciences and Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Northwest University, Northwest University, Xi'an No.3 Hospital, Xi'an, 710021, China.
- Key Laboratory of Resource Biology and Biotechnology in Western China, Faulty of Life Sciences and Medicine, Ministry of Education, Northwest University, 229 Taibai North Road, Xi'an, 710069, China.
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Paulus J, Nachtigall B, Meyer P, Sewald N. RGD Peptidomimetic MMAE-Conjugate Addressing Integrin αVβ3-Expressing Cells with High Targeting Index. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202203476. [PMID: 36454662 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202203476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Revised: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Small molecule-drug conjugates (SMDCs) mimicking the RGD sequence (-Arg-Gly-Asp-) with a non-peptide moiety require a pharmacophore-independent attachment site. A library of 36 sulfonamide-modified RGD mimetics with nM to pM affinity for integrin αV β3 was synthesized and analysed via DAD mapping. The best structure of the conjugable RGD mimetic was used and a linker was attached to an aromatic ring by Negishi cross-coupling. The product retained high affinity and selectivity for integrin αV β3 . The conjugable RGD mimetic was then attached to an enzymatically cleavable GKGEVA linker equipped with a self-immolative PABC and the antimitotic drug monomethyl auristatin E (MMAE). The resulting SMDC preferred binding to integrin αV β3 over α5 β1 in a ratio of 1 : 4519 (ELISA) and showed selectivity for αV β3 -positive WM115 cells over αV β3 -negative M21-L cells in the in vitro cell adhesion assay as well as in cell viability assays with a targeting index of 134 (M21-L/WM115).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jannik Paulus
- Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Beate Nachtigall
- Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Peter Meyer
- Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Norbert Sewald
- Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Bielefeld University, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
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Comparison of Linear vs. Cyclic RGD Pentapeptide Interactions with Integrin α vβ 3 by Molecular Dynamics Simulations. BIOLOGY 2021; 10:biology10070688. [PMID: 34356543 PMCID: PMC8301328 DOI: 10.3390/biology10070688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Simple Summary The integrin αvβ3-RGD motif interaction plays a key role in the progression of malignant tumor. Although two typical cyclic and linear RGD short peptides have been widely used in tumor diagnosis and therapy, little is known about the internal dynamic mechanism for different configurations of RGD peptides with different affinities interacting with the integrin αvβ3. Our results showed that the cyclic RGD peptide had a more stable configuration in binding to integrins αvβ3, which depended on the higher binding energy and higher static electrical energy, especially in the interaction between AspRGD-MIDAS. The steered molecular dynamics simulation showed a stronger interaction for the cyclic RGD-integrin αvβ3 system than the linear one, with a larger dissociation force (average peak force) and more time to dissociate. Our findings provide insights into the dynamics of integrin αvβ3 interactions with linear and cyclic RGD ligands and offer some new therapeutic approaches for the design and development of novel antitumor drugs. Abstract Integrin αvβ3 interacting with the short Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) motif plays a critical role in the progression of several types of tumors. However, the effects of the RGD structure (cyclic or linear) with integrin αvβ3 at the atomic level remain poorly understood. Here, we performed association and dissociation dynamic simulations for integrin αvβ3 in complex with a linear or cyclic pentapeptide by steered molecular dynamics simulations. Compared with cyclic RGD, the linear RGD peptide triggers instability of the configurational changes, mainly resting with the RGD domain due to its flexibility. The main interaction energy between Mg2+ and cyclic RGD is much stronger than that of the linear RGD system by the well shield to lessen attacks by free water molecules. The force-dependent dissociation results show that it is easier for linear RGD peptides to leave the active site and much quicker than the cyclic RGD ligand, whereas it is harder to enter the appropriate active binding site in linear RGD. The Ser123-AspRGD bond may play a critical role in the allosteric pathway. Our findings provide insights into the dynamics of αvβ3 interactions with linear and cyclic RGD ligands and contribute to the application of RGD-based strategies in preclinical therapy.
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Ozsvar J, Wang R, Tarakanova A, Buehler MJ, Weiss AS. Fuzzy binding model of molecular interactions between tropoelastin and integrin alphaVbeta3. Biophys J 2021; 120:3138-3151. [PMID: 34197806 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2021.04.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 03/30/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Tropoelastin is the highly flexible monomer subunit of elastin, required for the resilience of the extracellular matrix in elastic tissues. To elicit biological signaling, multiple sites on tropoelastin bind to cell surface integrins in a poorly understood multifactorial process. We constructed a full atomistic molecular model of the interactions between tropoelastin and integrin αvβ3 using ensemble-based computational methodologies. Conformational changes of integrin αvβ3 associated with outside-in signaling were more frequently facilitated in an ensemble in which tropoelastin bound the integrin's α1 helix rather than the upstream canonical binding site. Our findings support a model of fuzzy binding, whereby many tropoelastin conformations and defined sites cooperatively interact with multiple αvβ3 regions. This model explains prior experimental binding to distinct tropoelastin regions, domains 17 and 36, and points to the cooperative participation of domain 20. Our study highlights the utility of ensemble-based approaches in helping to understand the interactive mechanisms of functionally significant flexible proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jazmin Ozsvar
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Richard Wang
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Anna Tarakanova
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut; Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut
| | - Markus J Buehler
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Anthony S Weiss
- Charles Perkins Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia; School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia; Sydney Nano Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.
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Sacchi A, Gasparri AM, Monieri M, Anderluzzi G, Colombo B, Gori A, Corti A, Curnis F. Nanogold Functionalized With Lipoamide- isoDGR: A Simple, Robust and Versatile Nanosystem for αvβ3-Integrin Targeting. Front Chem 2021; 9:690357. [PMID: 34124009 PMCID: PMC8194705 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.690357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Gold nanoparticles functionalized with isoDGR, a tripeptide motif that recognizes αvβ3 integrin overexpressed in tumor vessels, have been used as nano-vectors for the delivery of cytokines to tumors. Functionalization of nanogold with this peptide has been achieved by coating nanoparticles with a peptide-albumin conjugate consisting of heterogeneous molecules with a variable number of linkers and peptides. To reduce nanodrug heterogeneity we have designed, produced and preclinically evaluated a homogeneous and well-defined reagent for nanogold functionalization, consisting of a head-to-tail cyclized CGisoDGRG peptide (iso1) coupled via its thiol group to maleimide-PEG11-lipoamide (LPA). The resulting iso1-PEG11-LPA compound can react with nanogold via lipoamide to form a stable bond. In vitro studies have shown that iso1, after coupling to nanogold, maintains its capability to bind purified αvβ3 and αvβ3-expressing cells. Nanogold functionalized with this peptide can also be loaded with bioactive tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF) to form a bi-functional nanodrug that can be stored for three days at 37°C or >1 year at low temperatures with no loss αvβ3-binding properties and TNF-cytolytic activity. Nanoparticles functionalized with both iso1 and TNF induced tumor eradication in WEHI-164 fibrosarcoma-bearing mice more efficiently than nanoparticles lacking the iso1 targeting moiety. These results suggest that iso1-PEG11-LPA is an efficient and well-defined reagent that can be used to produce robust and more homogeneous nano-vectors for the delivery of TNF and other cytokines to αvβ3 positive cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelina Sacchi
- Tumor Biology and Vascular Targeting Unit, Division of Experimental Oncology, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Anna Maria Gasparri
- Tumor Biology and Vascular Targeting Unit, Division of Experimental Oncology, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | | | | | - Barbara Colombo
- Tumor Biology and Vascular Targeting Unit, Division of Experimental Oncology, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Alessandro Gori
- Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie Chimiche, C.N.R., Milan, Italy
| | - Angelo Corti
- Tumor Biology and Vascular Targeting Unit, Division of Experimental Oncology, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy.,Università Vita-Salute San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Flavio Curnis
- Tumor Biology and Vascular Targeting Unit, Division of Experimental Oncology, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
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Paladino A, D'Angelo F, Noviello TMR, Iavarone A, Ceccarelli M. Structural Model for Recruitment of RIT1 to the LZTR1 E3 Ligase: Evidences from an Integrated Computational Approach. J Chem Inf Model 2021; 61:1875-1888. [PMID: 33792302 PMCID: PMC8154269 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.1c00296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Leucine-zipper transcription regulator 1 (LZTR1) is a highly mutated tumor suppressor gene, involved in the pathogenesis of several cancer types and developmental disorders. In proteasomal degradation, it acts as an adaptor protein responsible for the recognition and recruitment of substrates to be ubiquitinated in Cullin3-RING ligase E3 (CRL3) machinery. LZTR1 belongs to the BTB-Kelch family, a multi-domain protein where the Kelch propeller plays as the substrate recognition region and for which no experimental structure has been solved. Recently, large effort mutational analyses pointed to the role of disease-associated LZTR1 mutations in the RAS/MAPK signaling pathway and RIT1, a small Ras-related GTPase protein, has been identified by mass spectroscopy to interact with LZTR1. Hence, a better understanding of native structure, molecular mechanism, and substrate specificity would help clarifying the role of LZTR1 in pathological diseases, thus promoting advancement in the development of novel therapeutic strategies. Here, we address the interaction model between adaptor LZTR1 and substrate RIT1 by applying an integrated computational approach, including molecular modeling and docking techniques. We observe that the interaction model LZTR1-RIT1 is stabilized by an electrostatic bond network established between the two protein surfaces, which is reminiscent of homologous ubiquitin ligases complexes. Then, running MD simulations, we characterize differential conformational dynamics of the multi-domain LZTR1, offering interesting implications on the mechanistic role of specific point mutations. We identify G248R and R283Q as damaging mutations involved in the recognition process of the substrate RIT1 and R412C as a possible allosteric mutation from the Kelch to the C-term BTB-domain. Our findings provide important structural insights on targeting CRL3s for drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonella Paladino
- BIOGEM Istituto di Ricerche Genetiche "G. Salvatore", via Camporeale, Ariano Irpino 83031, Italy
| | - Fulvio D'Angelo
- BIOGEM Istituto di Ricerche Genetiche "G. Salvatore", via Camporeale, Ariano Irpino 83031, Italy.,Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, 1130 St Nicholas Ave, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Teresa Maria Rosaria Noviello
- BIOGEM Istituto di Ricerche Genetiche "G. Salvatore", via Camporeale, Ariano Irpino 83031, Italy.,Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology (DIETI), University of Naples "Federico II", Via Claudio 21, Naples 80128, Italy
| | - Antonio Iavarone
- Institute for Cancer Genetics, Columbia University, 1130 St Nicholas Ave, New York, New York 10032, United States.,Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University Medical Center, 1130 St Nicholas Ave, New York , New York 10032 United States.,Department of Neurology, Columbia University Medical Center, 1130 St Nicholas Ave, New York, New York 10032, United States
| | - Michele Ceccarelli
- BIOGEM Istituto di Ricerche Genetiche "G. Salvatore", via Camporeale, Ariano Irpino 83031, Italy.,Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology (DIETI), University of Naples "Federico II", Via Claudio 21, Naples 80128, Italy
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Panzeri S, Arosio D, Gazzola S, Belvisi L, Civera M, Potenza D, Vasile F, Kemker I, Ertl T, Sewald N, Reiser O, Piarulli U. Cyclic RGD and isoDGR Integrin Ligands Containing cis-2-amino-1-cyclopentanecarboxylic ( cis-β-ACPC) Scaffolds. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25245966. [PMID: 33339382 PMCID: PMC7766232 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25245966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Integrin ligands containing the tripeptide sequences Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) and iso-Asp-Gly- Arg (isoDGR) were actively investigated as inhibitors of tumor angiogenesis and directing unit in tumor-targeting drug conjugates. Reported herein is the synthesis, of two RGD and one isoDGR cyclic peptidomimetics containing (1S,2R) and (1R,2S) cis-2-amino-1-cyclopentanecarboxylic acid (cis-β-ACPC), using a mixed solid phase/solution phase synthetic protocol. The three ligands were examined in vitro in competitive binding assays to the purified αvβ3 and α5β1 receptors using biotinylated vitronectin (αvβ3) and fibronectin (α5β1) as natural displaced ligands. The IC50 values of the ligands ranged from nanomolar (the two RGD ligands) to micromolar (the isoDGR ligand) with a pronounced selectivity for αvβ3 over α5β1. In vitro cell adhesion assays were also performed using the human skin melanoma cell line WM115 (rich in integrin αvβ3). The two RGD ligands showed IC50 values in the same micromolar range as the reference compound (cyclo[RGDfV]), while for the isoDGR derivative an IC50 value could not be measured for the cell adhesion assay. A conformational analysis of the free RGD and isoDGR ligands by NMR (VT-NMR and NOESY experiments) and computational studies (MC/EM and MD), followed by docking simulations performed in the αVβ3 integrin active site, provided a rationale for the behavior of these ligands toward the receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Panzeri
- Dipartimento di Scienza e Alta Tecnologia, Università degli Studi dell’Insubria, Via Valleggio 11, 22100 Como, Italy; (S.P.); (S.G.)
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Regensburg, Universitätsstraße 31, 93053 Regensburg, Germany; (T.E.); (O.R.)
| | - Daniela Arosio
- Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (CNR), Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie Chimiche (SCITEC), Giulio Natta, Via C. Golgi 19, 20133 Milan, Italy;
| | - Silvia Gazzola
- Dipartimento di Scienza e Alta Tecnologia, Università degli Studi dell’Insubria, Via Valleggio 11, 22100 Como, Italy; (S.P.); (S.G.)
| | - Laura Belvisi
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via C. Golgi 19, 20133 Milan, Italy; (L.B.); (M.C.); (D.P.); (F.V.)
| | - Monica Civera
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via C. Golgi 19, 20133 Milan, Italy; (L.B.); (M.C.); (D.P.); (F.V.)
| | - Donatella Potenza
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via C. Golgi 19, 20133 Milan, Italy; (L.B.); (M.C.); (D.P.); (F.V.)
| | - Francesca Vasile
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via C. Golgi 19, 20133 Milan, Italy; (L.B.); (M.C.); (D.P.); (F.V.)
| | - Isabell Kemker
- Department of Chemistry, Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, University of Bielefeld, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany; (I.K.); (N.S.)
| | - Thomas Ertl
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Regensburg, Universitätsstraße 31, 93053 Regensburg, Germany; (T.E.); (O.R.)
| | - Norbert Sewald
- Department of Chemistry, Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry, University of Bielefeld, Universitätsstraße 25, 33615 Bielefeld, Germany; (I.K.); (N.S.)
| | - Oliver Reiser
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Regensburg, Universitätsstraße 31, 93053 Regensburg, Germany; (T.E.); (O.R.)
| | - Umberto Piarulli
- Dipartimento di Scienza e Alta Tecnologia, Università degli Studi dell’Insubria, Via Valleggio 11, 22100 Como, Italy; (S.P.); (S.G.)
- Correspondence:
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Integrins are a family of 24 cell adhesion receptors that play a role in the biggest unmet needs in medicine - cardiovascular disease, immunology and cancer. Their discovery promised huge potential for the pharmaceutical industry. Areas covered. Over 35-years since their discovery, there is little to show for the hundreds of billions of dollars of investment in anti-integrin drug discovery programmes. In this review the author discusses the reasons for the failure of this promising class of drugs and the future for this class of drugs. Expert opinion. Within 10-years, there was a plethora of potent, specific anti-integrin molecules and since their discovery, many of these agents have entered clinical trials. The success in discovering these agents was due to recently discovered monoclonal antibody technology. The integrin-recognition domain Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) provided the basis for discovering small molecule inhibitors to integrins - both cyclic peptides and peptidomimetics. Most agents failed in the Phase III clinical trials and those agents that did make it to the market were plagued with issues of toxicity and limited efficacy and were soon replaced with non-integrin targeting agents. Their failure was due to a combination of poor pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, complicated by the complex pathophysiology of integrins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dermot Cox
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland , Dublin, Ireland
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