Surface‐Deactivated Core–Shell Metal–Organic Framework by Simple Ligand Exchange for Enhanced Size Discrimination in Aerobic Oxidation of Alcohols

Hybrid Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) for Various Catalysis Applications

Porous materials have been gaining popularity in catalysis applications, solving the current ecological challenges. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are especially noteworthy for their high surface areas and customizable chemistry, giving them a wide range of potential applications in catalysis remediation. The review study delves into the various applications of MOFs in catalysis and provides a comprehensive summary. This review thoroughly explores MOF materials, specifically focusing on their diverse catalytic applications, including Lewis catalysis, oxidation, reduction, photocatalysis, and electrocatalysis. Also, this study emphasizes the significance of high-performance MOF materials, which possess adjustable properties and exceptional features, as a novel approach to tackling technological challenges across multiple sectors. MOFs make it an ideal candidate for catalytic reactions, as it enables efficient conversion rates and selectivity. Furthermore, the tunable properties of MOF make it possible to tailor its structure to suit specific catalytic requirements. This feature improves performance and reduces costs associated with traditional catalysts. In conclusion, MOF materials have revolutionized the field of catalysis and offer immense potential in solving various technological challenges across different industries.

Metal-organic frameworks for organic transformations by photocatalysis and photothermal catalysis

Organic transformation by light-driven catalysis, especially, photocatalysis and photothermal catalysis, denoted as photo(thermal) catalysis, is an efficient, green, and economical route to produce value-added compounds. In recent years, owing to their diverse structure types, tunable pore sizes, and abundant active sites, metal-organic framework (MOF)-based photo(thermal) catalysis has attracted broad interest in organic transformations. In this review, we provide a comprehensive and systematic overview of MOF-based photo(thermal) catalysis for organic transformations. First, the general mechanisms, unique advantages, and strategies to improve the performance of MOFs in photo(thermal) catalysis are discussed. Then, outstanding examples of organic transformations over MOF-based photo(thermal) catalysis are introduced according to the reaction type. In addition, several representative advanced characterization techniques used for revealing the charge reaction kinetics and reaction intermediates of MOF-based organic transformations by photo(thermal) catalysis are presented. Finally, the prospects and challenges in this field are proposed. This review aims to inspire the rational design and development of MOF-based materials with improved performance in organic transformations by photocatalysis and photothermal catalysis.

Evaluating Nondestructive Quantification of Composition Gradients in Metal-Organic Frameworks by MeV Ion Microbeam Analysis

We evaluate a method to quantify composition depth gradients in intact metal-organic framework (MOF) single crystals and thereby derive diffusion coefficients of postsynthetically incorporated active sites by nondestructive ion-beam microanalysis. Zr-based UiO-67-bpy (bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine-5,5'-dicarboxylic acid) MOFs were synthesized on Si substrates and then metalated postsynthetically with NiCl2 for 2-48 h, resulting in different Ni depth distributions. Simultaneous micro-Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (μ-RBS) and micro-particle induced X-ray emission (μ-PIXE) analysis were used for the spatially resolved chemical analysis of the MOF single crystals. Qualitative assessment of the μ-RBS spectra indicated the presence of elemental depth gradients and hinted at the governing process of the postsynthetic Ni incorporation, in the present case, molecular diffusion. Quantitative evaluation of the resulting composition depth profiles directly provided the diffusion length and, thereby, the diffusion coefficient of the system. Virtual gradients caused by overhanging tips/edges of the truncated octahedral crystal shape are considered. Furthermore, in the case of insufficient probing depth for μ-RBS, μ-PIXE was still capable of providing qualitative information. In the present system the diffusion coefficient for NiCl2 is found to be (1.72 ± 0.18) × 10-16 m2s-1. The long-term stability of the synthesized and postsynthetically modified MOFs is proved by repeated measurements.

A Method for Determining Incorporation Depth in Core-Shell UiO-66 Nanoparticles Synthesized Via Postsynthetic Exchange

Postsynthetic exchange (PSE) is a key technique for integrating sensitive linkers into metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). Despite its importance, investigations into linker distributions have primarily focused on micrometer-sized crystals due to the analytical limitations, leaving nanoparticles less explored, although they are commonly synthesized and used in applications. In particular, the emergence of core-shell nanostructures via PSE has shown potential for applications in CO2 adsorption and selective catalysis. This study addresses this gap by investigating the formation of core-shell structures on nanoparticles under diffusion-controlled PSE conditions. By analyzing volume-to-surface ratios and conducting time-dependent experiments, we confirmed that these conditions facilitate the development of core-shell architectures. We also developed a straightforward method to calculate the minimum incorporation depth using basic parameters such as particle size and the total amount of incorporated linker. The accuracy of our approach was validated against data obtained from transmission electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. These findings enhance the understanding of PSE in MOF nanoparticles and open up promising avenues for developing advanced MOF core-shell structures for various applications.

Organic Synthesis Using Nitroxides

Nitroxides, also known as nitroxyl radicals, are long-lived or stable radicals with the general structure R1R2N-O•. The spin distribution over the nitroxide N and O atoms contributes to the thermodynamic stability of these radicals. The presence of bulky N-substituents R1 and R2 prevents nitroxide radical dimerization, ensuring their kinetic stability. Despite their reactivity toward various transient C radicals, some nitroxides can be easily stored under air at room temperature. Furthermore, nitroxides can be oxidized to oxoammonium salts (R1R2N═O+) or reduced to anions (R1R2N-O-), enabling them to act as valuable oxidants or reductants depending on their oxidation state. Therefore, they exhibit interesting reactivity across all three oxidation states. Due to these fascinating properties, nitroxides find extensive applications in diverse fields such as biochemistry, medicinal chemistry, materials science, and organic synthesis. This review focuses on the versatile applications of nitroxides in organic synthesis. For their use in other important fields, we will refer to several review articles. The introductory part provides a brief overview of the history of nitroxide chemistry. Subsequently, the key methods for preparing nitroxides are discussed, followed by an examination of their structural diversity and physical properties. The main portion of this review is dedicated to oxidation reactions, wherein parent nitroxides or their corresponding oxoammonium salts serve as active species. It will be demonstrated that various functional groups (such as alcohols, amines, enolates, and alkanes among others) can be efficiently oxidized. These oxidations can be carried out using nitroxides as catalysts in combination with various stoichiometric terminal oxidants. By reducing nitroxides to their corresponding anions, they become effective reducing reagents with intriguing applications in organic synthesis. Nitroxides possess the ability to selectively react with transient radicals, making them useful for terminating radical cascade reactions by forming alkoxyamines. Depending on their structure, alkoxyamines exhibit weak C-O bonds, allowing for the thermal generation of C radicals through reversible C-O bond cleavage. Such thermally generated C radicals can participate in various radical transformations, as discussed toward the end of this review. Furthermore, the application of this strategy in natural product synthesis will be presented.

Crystalline Metal-Peptide Networks: Structures, Applications, and Future Outlook

Metal-peptide networks (MPNs), which are assembled from short peptides and metal ions, are considered one of the most fascinating metal-organic coordinated architectures because of their unique and complicated structures. Although MPNs have considerable potential for development into versatile materials, they have not been developed for practical applications because of several underlying limitations, such as designability, stability, and modifiability. In this review, we summarise several important milestones in the development of crystalline MPNs and thoroughly analyse their structural features, such as peptide sequence designs, coordination geometries, cross-linking types, and network topologies. In addition, potential applications such as gas adsorption, guest encapsulation, and chiral recognition are introduced. We believe that this review is a useful survey that can provide insights into the development of new MPNs with more sophisticated structures and novel functions.

Nitroxyl radical-containing flexible porous coordination polymer for controllable size-aelective aerobic oxidation of alcohols

The ability of flexible porous coordination polymers (PCPs) to change their structure in response to various stimuli has not been exploited in the design of tunable-selectivity catalysts. Herein, we make use of this ability and prepare nitroxyl radical-containing flexible PCP that can reversibly switch between large- and contracted-pore configurations in response to solvent change and thus promote the controllable size-selective aerobic oxidation of alcohols.

Patchwork Metal-Organic Frameworks by Radical-Mediated Heterografting of Star Polymers for Surface Modification

We report a synthetic methodology for decorating a surface of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) with polymers through postsynthetic modification. Well-defined polymers with reversibly deactivated radical species at their chain end were reacted with vinyl-functionalized MOFs in the presence of a radical initiator. The radical addition forms a C-C bond between the polymer end with the functional group at the MOF ligand. We used sterically bulky star polymers containing electron-deficient maleimide chain ends, which facilitated modification of the external surface, yielding polymer-grafted MOF composite particles. A patchy MOF particle can also be obtained by simultaneously grafting two polymers and jammed at the immiscible liquid-liquid interface. We further show that the selective removal of a sacrificial polymer would partially expose the surface of MOFs to external environment, which hinders the uptake of macromolecular guests above the critical hydrodynamic size. Overall, four polymer@MOF composites have successfully been achieved through the present postsynthetic patchworks on MOFs with star polymers and selective etching process.

Spatial distribution modulation of mixed building blocks in metal-organic frameworks

The placement of mixed building blocks at precise locations in metal-organic frameworks is critical to creating pore environments suitable for advanced applications. Here we show that the spatial distribution of mixed building blocks in metal-organic frameworks can be modulated by exploiting the different temperature sensitivities of the diffusion coefficients and exchange rate constants of the building blocks. By tuning the reaction temperature of the forward linker exchange from one metal-organic framework to another isoreticular metal-organic framework, core-shell microstructural and uniform microstructural metal-organic frameworks are obtained. The strategy can be extended to the fabrication of inverted core-shell microstructures and multi-shell microstructures and applied for the modulation of the spatial distribution of framework metal ions during the post-synthetic metal exchange process of a Zn-based metal-organic framework to an isostructural Ni-based metal-organic framework.

An X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy Study of Postsynthetic Exchange in UiO-66

Postsynthetic exchange (PSE) is a method that is widely used to change the composition of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) by replacing connecting linkers or metal nodes after the framework has been synthesized. However, few techniques can probe the nature and distribution of exchanged species following PSE. Herein, we show that X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy can be used to compare the relative concentrations of exchanged ligands at the surface and interior regions of MOF particles. Specifically, PSE of iodobenzene dicarboxylate ligands results in a gradient distribution from surface to bulk in UiO-66 nanoparticles that depends on PSE time. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy also reveals differences between the surface chemistry of the PSE product and that of the direct synthesis product.

Elemental Depth Profiling of Intact Metal-Organic Framework Single Crystals by Scanning Nuclear Microprobe

The growing field of MOF–catalyst composites often relies on postsynthetic modifications for the installation of active sites. In the resulting MOFs, the spatial distribution of the inserted catalysts has far-reaching ramifications for the performance of the system and thus needs to be precisely determined. Herein, we report the application of a scanning nuclear microprobe for accurate and nondestructive depth profiling of individual UiO-66 and UiO-67 (UiO = Universitetet i Oslo) single crystals. Initial optimization work using native UiO-66 crystals yielded a microbeam method which avoided beam damage, while subsequent analysis of Zr/Hf mixed-metal UiO-66 crystals demonstrated the potential of the method to obtain high-resolution depth profiles. The microbeam method was further used to analyze the depth distribution of postsynthetically introduced organic moieties, revealing either core–shell or uniform incorporation can be obtained depending on the size of the introduced molecule, as well as the number of carboxylate binding groups. Finally, the spatial distribution of platinum centers that were postsynthetically installed in the bpy binding pockets of UiO-67-bpy (bpy = 5,5′-dicarboxyy-2,2′-bipyridine) was analyzed by microbeam and contextualized. We expect that the method presented herein will be applicable for characterizing a wide variety of MOFs subjected to postsynthetic modifications and provide information crucial for their optimization as functional materials.

TEMPO-radical-bearing metal-organic frameworks and covalent organic frameworks for catalytic applications

It is known that 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidinyl-1-oxy (or TEMPO) is a stable, radical-containing molecule, which has been utilized in various areas of organic synthesis, catalysis, polymer chemistry, electrochemical reactions, and materials chemistry. Its unique stability, attributable to its structural features, and molecular tunability allows for the modification of various materials, including the heterogenization of solid materials. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) and covalent organic frameworks (COFs) are porous and tunable because of their ligand or linker portion, and both have been extensively studied for use in catalytic applications. Therefore, synergistically combining the chemistry of TEMPO with the properties of MOFs and COFs is a natural choice and should allow for significant advancements, including improved recyclability and selectivity. This article focuses on TEMPO-bearing MOFs and COFs for use in catalytic applications. In addition, recent strategies related to the use of these functional porous materials in catalytic reactions are also discussed.

Merging N-Hydroxyphthalimide into Metal-Organic Frameworks for Highly Efficient and Environmentally Benign Aerobic Oxidation

Two highly efficient metal-organic framework catalysts TJU-68-NHPI and TJU-68-NDHPI have been successfully synthesized through solvothermal reactions of which the frameworks are merged with N-hydroxyphthalimide (NHPI) units, resulting in the decoration of pore surfaces with highly active nitroxyl catalytic sites. When t-butyl nitrite (TBN) is used as co-catalyst, the as-synthesized MOFs are demonstrated to be highly efficient and recyclable catalysts for a novel three-phase heterogeneous oxidation of activated C-H bond of primary and secondary alcohols, and benzyl compounds under mild conditions. Based on the high efficiency and selectivity, an environmentally benign system with good sustainability, mild conditions, simple work-up procedure has been established for practical oxidation of a wide range of substrates.

Metal-organic frameworks as catalytic selectivity regulators for organic transformations

Selective organic transformations using metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) and MOF-based heterogeneous catalysts have been an intriguing but challenging research topic in both the chemistry and materials communities. Analogous to the reaction specificity achieved in enzyme pockets, MOFs are also powerful platforms for regulating the catalytic selectivity via engineering their catalytic microenvironments, such as metal node alternation, ligand functionalization, pore decoration, topology variation and others. In this review, we provide a comprehensive introduction and discussion about the role of MOFs played in regulating and even boosting the size-, shape-, chemo-, regio- and more appealing stereo-selectivity in organic transformations. We hope that it will be instructive for researchers in this field to rationally design, conveniently prepare and elaborately functionalize MOFs or MOF-based composites for the synthesis of high value-added organic chemicals with significantly improved selectivity.

Amine-Tagged Fragmented Ligand Installation for Covalent Modification of MOF-74

MOF-74 is one of the most explored metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), but its functionalization is limited to the dative post-synthetic modification (PSM) of the monodentate solvent site. Owing to the nature of the organic ligand and framework structure of MOF-74, the covalent PSM of MOF-74 is very demanding. Herein, we report, for the first time, the covalent PSM of amine-tagged defective Ni-MOF-74, which is prepared by de novo solvothermal synthesis by using aminosalicylic acid as a functionalized fragmented organic ligand. The covalent PSM of the amino group generates metal binding sites, and subsequent post-synthetic metalation with Pd^II ions affords the Pd^II -incorporated Ni-MOF-74 catalyst. This catalyst exhibits highly efficient, size-selective, and recyclable catalytic activity for the Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling reaction. This strategy is also useful for the covalent modification of amine-tagged defective Ni₂ (DOBPDC), an expanded analogue of MOF-74.

Synthesis of MOF-on-MOF architectures in the context of interfacial lattice matching

This highlight summarises the previously reported MOF-on-MOF systems, with a focus on the presented crystallographic information and classification of the systems according to lattice parameter matching.

Solvent Choice in Metal-Organic Framework Linker Exchange Permits Microstructural Control

Linker exchange is a widely applied, robust technique for elaboration of metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) post-synthesis. The observation of core-shell microstructures under certain conditions was hypothesized to arise from diffusion rates into the MOF that are slower than linker exchange. Here the relative contributions of these processes are manipulated through solvent choice in order to modulate shell thickness and exchange extent. The findings allow tailoring MOF microstructure to application.

Core-Shell MOFs@MOFs: Diverse Designability and Enhanced Selectivity

Metal-Organic frameworks (MOFs), especially MOF-based composites, performed an irreplaceable role in the material fields. By virtue of the tailorability of MOFs, core-shell MOFs@MOFs composites with diverse designability and enhanced selectivity have inspired infinite scientific interest. This review will highlight an up-to-date overview of the designability and enhanced selectivity of core-shell MOFs@MOFs composites, covering the synthetic strategies of an epitaxial growth method, postsynthetic modification, and one-pot synthesis as well as the synergistic selective performance of the synthesized MOFs@MOFs in catalysis, adsorption and separation, and molecular recognition. Finally, the potential development trend and challenges toward core-shell MOFs@MOFs are addressed.

Sequential Connection of Mutually Exclusive Catalytic Reactions by a Method Controlling the Presence of an MOF Catalyst: One-Pot Oxidation of Alcohols to Carboxylic Acids

A functionalized metal-organic framework (MOF) catalyst applied to the sequential one-pot oxidation of alcohols to carboxylic acids controls the presence of a heterogeneous catalyst. The conversion of alcohols to aldehydes was acquired through aerobic oxidation using a well-known amino-oxy radical-functionalized MOF. In the same flask, a simple filtration of the radical MOF with mild heating of the solution completely altered the reaction media, providing radical scavenger-free conditions suitable for the autoxidation of the aldehydes formed in the first step to carboxylic acids. The mutually exclusive radical-catalyzed aerobic oxidation (the first step with MOF) and radical-inhibited autoxidation (the second step without MOF) are sequentially achieved in a one-pot manner. Overall, we demonstrate a powerful and efficient method for the sequential oxidation of alcohols to carboxylic acids by employing a readily functionalizable heterogeneous MOF. In addition, our MOF in-and-out method can be utilized in an environmentally friendly way for the oxidation of alcohols to carboxylic acids of industrial and economic value with broad functional group tolerance, including 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid and 1,4-benzenedicarboxylic acid, with good yield and reusability. Furthermore, MOF-TEMPO, as an antioxidative stabilizer, prevents the undesired oxidation of aldehydes, and the perfect "recoverability" of such a reactive MOF requires a re-evaluation of the advantages of MOFs from heterogeneity in catalytic and related applications.

Positional Installation of Unsymmetrical Fluorine Functionalities onto Metal-Organic Frameworks for Efficient Carbon Dioxide Separation under Humid Conditions

Unsymmetrical trifluoro functional groups were installed onto metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) at positions regulated by ligand exchange for efficient CO₂ separation under humid conditions. These trifluoro groups induced molecular separation via dipole-dipole interactions. Their installation onto amino-functionalized MOF surfaces produced hydrophobic and CO₂-philic core-shell MOFs for efficient CO₂ adsorption.

Dual-fixations of europium cations and TEMPO species on metal-organic frameworks for the aerobic oxidation of alcohols

The efficient and selective aerobic oxidation of alcohols has been investigated with judicious combinations of europium-incorporated and/or TEMPO ((2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-1-yl)oxyl)-functionalized zirconium-based porous metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). Although MOFs are well-known catalytic platforms for the aerobic oxidation with radical-functionalities and metal nanoparticles, these systematic approaches involving metal cations and/or radical species introduce numerous interesting aspects for cooperation between metals and TEMPO for the aerobic oxidation of alcohols. The role of TEMPO as the oxidant in the heterogeneous catalytic aerobic oxidation of alcohols was revealed through a series of comparisons between metal-anchored, TEMPO-anchored, and metal and TEMPO-anchored MOF catalysis. The fine tunability of the MOF allowed the homogeneously and doubly functionalized catalysts to undergo organic reactions in the heterogeneous media. In addition, the well-defined and carefully designed heterogeneous molecular catalysts displayed reusability along with better catalytic performance than the homogeneous systems using identical coordinating ligands. The role of metal-cation fixation should be carefully revised to control their coordination and maximize their catalytic activity. Lastly, the metal cation-fixed MOF displayed better substrate tolerance and reaction efficiencies than the TEMPO-anchored MOF or mixture MOF systems.