Synthesis of Diverse Aryliodine( III ) Reagents by Anodic Oxidation †

Electrocatalytic continuous flow chlorinations with iodine(I/III) mediators

Electrochemistry offers tunable, cost effective and environmentally friendly alternatives to carry out redox reactions with electrons as traceless reagents. The use of organoiodine compounds as electrocatalysts is largely underdeveloped, despite their widespread application as powerful and versatile reagents. Mechanistic data reveal that the hexafluoroisopropanol assisted iodoarene oxidation is followed by a stepwise chloride ligand exchange for the catalytic generation of the dichloroiodoarene mediator. Here, we report an environmentally benign iodine(I/III) electrocatalytic platform for the in situ generation of dichloroiodoarenes for different reactions such as mono- and dichlorinations as well as chlorocyclisations within a continuous flow setup.

Overcoming Challenges in Electrosynthesis Using High‐Throughput Electrochemistry: Hypervalent Iodine‐Mediated Phenol Dearomatization, a Case Study

Despite many recent efforts, the field of organic electrosyn‐thesis faces important challenges due to the intricate nature of heterogeneous redox processes, the wide parameter space to be explored and the lack of standardized methods. To overcome these limitations, we developed a cost‐effective high‐throughput electrochemical (HTE) reactor capable of running 24 individually controlled parallel reactions. This system allows the rapid testing of electrochemical parameters on a given reaction, assessing not only yield but also reproducibility. Using the hypervalent iodine‐mediated dearomatization of phloretic acid as a demonstration of HTE capabilities, we ran more than 200 electrosyntheses in different experimental conditions and demonstrate the effect of parameters such as total charge transferred, current, electrode materials, electrolyte formulation and concentration, mediator formulation and concentration and electrochemical technique of oxidation. Notably, this report demonstrates that while catalytic amounts of iodine mediator can be used successfully, the reproducibility may be affected, which calls for a cautious approach when developing similar transformations. Using cyclic voltammetry, density functional theory, chronopotentiometry, and Raman spectroscopy, we shed light on the causes of this issue.

Silver-Catalyzed (Z)-β-Fluoro-vinyl Iodonium Salts from Alkynes: Efficient and Selective Syntheses of Z-Monofluoroalkenes

Monofluoroalkenes are stable and lipophilic amide bioisosteres used in medicinal chemistry. However, efficient and stereoselective methods for synthesizing Z-monofluoroalkenes are underdeveloped. We envisage (Z)-β-fluoro-vinyl iodonium salts (Z-FVIs) as coupling partners for the diverse and stereoselective synthesis of Z-monofluoroalkenes. Disclosed herein is the development and application of a silver(I)-catalyzed process for accessing a broad scope of (Z)-FVIs with exclusive Z-stereoselectivity and regioselectivity from alkynes in a single step. Experimental and computational studies provide insight into the mechanism of the catalytic cycle and the role of the silver(I) catalyst, and the reactivity of (Z)-FVIs is explored through several stereospecific derivatizations.

Organohypervalent heterocycles

This review summarizes the structural and synthetic aspects of heterocyclic molecules incorporating an atom of a hypervalent main-group element. The term "hypervalent" has been suggested for derivatives of main-group elements with more than eight valence electrons, and the concept of hypervalency is commonly used despite some criticism from theoretical chemists. The significantly higher thermal stability of hypervalent heterocycles compared to their acyclic analogs adds special features to their chemistry, particularly for bromine and iodine. Heterocyclic compounds of elements with double bonds are not categorized as hypervalent molecules owing to the zwitterionic nature of these bonds, resulting in the conventional 8-electron species. This review is focused on hypervalent heterocyclic derivatives of nonmetal main-group elements, such as boron, silicon, nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, sulfur, selenium, bromine, chlorine, iodine(III) and iodine(V).

Auxiliary strategy for the general and practical synthesis of diaryliodonium(III) salts with diverse organocarboxylate counterions

Diaryliodonium(III) salts are versatile reagents that exhibit a range of reactions, both in the presence and absence of metal catalysts. In this study, we developed efficient synthetic methods for the preparation of aryl(TMP)iodonium(III) carboxylates, by reaction of (diacetoxyiodo)arenes or iodosoarenes with 1,3,5-trimethoxybenzene in the presence of a diverse range of organocarboxylic acids. These reactions were conducted under mild conditions using the trimethoxyphenyl (TMP) group as an auxiliary, without the need for additives, excess reagents, or counterion exchange in further steps. These protocols are compatible with a wide range of substituents on (hetero)aryl iodine(III) compounds, including electron-rich, electron-poor, sterically congested, and acid-labile groups, as well as a broad range of aliphatic and aromatic carboxylic acids for the synthesis of diverse aryl(TMP)iodonium(III) carboxylates in high yields. This method allows for the hybridization of complex bioactive and fluorescent-labeled carboxylic acids with diaryliodonium(III) salts.

Organophotoredox Catalysis: Switchable Radical Generation from Alkyl Sodium Sulfinates for Sulfonylation and Alkylative Activation of C-C Bonds of Cyclopropenes

Generating alkyl radicals from the sulfonyl radicals remains challenging in synthetic chemistry. Here, we report an efficient photocatalyzed strategy using alkyl sodium sulfinates as both sulfonylating and alkylating reagents by controlling the reaction temperature. This methodology provides a versatile protocol for synthesizing diastereoselective sulfonylated cyclopropanes and poly-substituted styrene derivatives. This methodology is successfully demonstrated with a wide variety of cyclopropenes and alkyl sulfinates, showcasing its broad substrate scope, high diastereo- and E/Z selectivity, and yielding good to excellent yields.

Metal-Free Electrocatalytic Diacetoxylation of Alkenes

1,2-Dioxygenation of alkenes leads to a structural motif ubiquitous in organic synthons, natural products and active pharmaceutical ingredients. Straightforward and green synthesis protocols starting from abundant raw materials are required for facile and sustainable access to these crucial moieties. Especially industrially abundant aliphatic alkenes have proven to be arduous substrates in sustainable 1,2-dioxygenation methods. Here, we report a highly efficient electrocatalytic diacetoxylation of alkenes under ambient conditions using a simple iodobenzene mediator and acetic acid as both the solvent and an atom-efficient reactant. This transition metal-free method is applicable to a wide range of alkenes, even challenging feedstock alkenes such as ethylene and propylene, with a broad functional group tolerance and excellent faradaic efficiencies up to 87 %. In addition, this protocol can be extrapolated to alkenoic acids, resulting in cyclization of the starting materials to valuable lactone derivatives. With aromatic alkenes, a competing mechanism of direct anodic oxidation exists which enables reaction under catalyst-free conditions. The synthetic method is extensively investigated with cyclic voltammetry.

Electrocatalytic Desulfurizative Amination of Thioureas to Guanidines

Guanidine has been known as an important class of N-containing molecules with a wide range of applications. Described here is a selective and efficient electrochemical approach to the synthesis of guanidines from easily accessible thioureas and amines. The key to success for this reaction is the in situ generation of a hypervalent iodine reagent as a catalyst from iodoarene by anodic oxidation. This mild desulfurizative amination presents ample substrate scope and good functional group tolerance without the use of extra stoichiometric chemical oxidants. As only electrons serve as the oxidation reagents, this method offers a more straightforward and sustainable manner toward versatile guanidines, including late-stage functionalization of pharmaceutically relevant molecules.

Selective multi-electron aggregation at a hypervalent iodine center by sequential disproportionation

We demonstrate that sequential disproportionation reactions can enable selective aggregation of two- or four electron-holes at a hypervalent iodine center. Disproportionation of an anodically generated iodanyl radical affords an iodosylbenzene derivative. Subsequent iodosylbenzene disproportionation can be triggered to provide access to an iodoxybenzene. These results demonstrate multielectron oxidation at the one-electron potential by selective and sequential disproportionation chemistry.

Recent Progress in Cyclic Aryliodonium Chemistry: Syntheses and Applications

Hypervalent aryliodoumiums are intensively investigated as arylating agents. They are excellent surrogates to aryl halides, and moreover they exhibit better reactivity, which allows the corresponding arylation reactions to be performed under mild conditions. In the past decades, acyclic aryliodoniums are widely explored as arylation agents. However, the unmet need for acyclic aryliodoniums is the improvement of their notoriously low reaction economy because the coproduced aryl iodides during the arylation are often wasted. Cyclic aryliodoniums have their intrinsic advantage in terms of reaction economy, and they have started to receive considerable attention due to their valuable synthetic applications to initiate cascade reactions, which can enable the construction of complex structures, including polycycles with potential pharmaceutical and functional properties. Here, we are summarizing the recent advances made in the research field of cyclic aryliodoniums, including the nascent design of aryliodonium species and their synthetic applications. First, the general preparation of typical diphenyl iodoniums is described, followed by the construction of heterocyclic iodoniums and monoaryl iodoniums. Then, the initiated arylations coupled with subsequent domino reactions are summarized to construct polycycles. Meanwhile, the advances in cyclic aryliodoniums for building biaryls including axial atropisomers are discussed in a systematic manner. Finally, a very recent advance of cyclic aryliodoniums employed as halogen-bonding organocatalysts is described.

Two-step continuous-flow synthesis of 6-membered cyclic iodonium salts via anodic oxidation

We describe a multi-step continuous-flow procedure for the generation of six-membered diaryliodonium salts. The accompanying scalability and atom economy are significant improvements to existing batch methods. Benzyl acetates are submitted to this two-step procedure as highly available and cheap starting materials. An acid-catalyzed Friedel-Crafts alkylation followed by an anodic oxidative cyclization yielded a defined set of cyclic iodonium salts in a highly substrate-dependent yield.

Counter Electrode Reactions-Important Stumbling Blocks on the Way to a Working Electro-organic Synthesis

Over the past two decades, electro-organic synthesis has gained significant interest, both in technical and academic research as well as in terms of applications. The omission of stoichiometric oxidizers or reducing agents enables a more sustainable route for redox reactions in organic chemistry. Even if it is well-known that every electrochemical oxidation is only viable with an associated reduction reaction and vice versa, the relevance of the counter reaction is often less addressed. In this Review, the importance of the corresponding counter reaction in electro-organic synthesis is highlighted and how it can affect the performance and selectivity of the electrolytic conversion. A selection of common strategies and unique concepts to tackle this issue are surveyed to provide a guide to select appropriate counter reactions for electro-organic synthesis.

Recent Updates on Electrogenerated Hypervalent Iodine Derivatives and Their Applications as Mediators in Organic Electrosynthesis

With the renaissance of chemical electrosynthesis in the last decade, the electrochemistry of hypervalent iodine compounds has picked up the pace and achieved significant improvements. By employing traceless electrons instead of stoichiometric oxidants as the alternative clean “reagents”, many hypervalent iodine compounds were efficiently electro-synthesized via anodic oxidation methods and utilized as powerful redox mediators triggering valuable oxidative coupling reactions in a more sustainable way. This minireview gives an up-to-date overview of the recent advances during the past 3 years, encompassing enhanced electrosynthesis technologies, novel synthetic applications, and ideas for improving reaction sustainability.

Electrochemical α-Thiolation and Azidation of 1,3-Dicarbonyls

A highly efficient electrochemical α-thiolation and azidation of 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds is developed. This electrochemical process is conducted under mild conditions without the use of chemical oxidant, and exhibits a wide...

Electrochemical Oxidative Syntheses of NH-Sulfoximines, NH-Sulfonimidamides and Dibenzothiazines via Anodically Generated Hypervalent Iodine Intermediates

Herein, we report a general method for the synthesis of NH-sulfoximines and NH-sulfonimidamides through direct electrochemical oxidative catalysis involving an iodoarene(I)/iodoarene(III) redox couple. In addition, dibenzothiazines can be synthesized from [1,1'-biaryl]-2-sulfides under standard conditions. Notably, only a catalytic amount of iodoarene is required for the generation in situ of an active hypervalent iodine catalyst, which avoids the need for an excess of a hypervalent iodine reagent relative to conventional approaches. Moreover, this protocol features broad substrate scope and wide functional group tolerance, delivering the target compounds with good-to-excellent yields even for a scale of more than 10 g.

Scalable electrochemical synthesis of diaryliodonium salts

Cyclic and acyclic diaryliodonium are synthesised by anodic oxidation of iodobiaryls and iodoarene/arene mixtures, respectively, in a simple undivided electrolysis cell in MeCN-HFIP-TfOH without any added electrolyte salts. This atom efficient process does not require chemical oxidants and generates no chemical waste. More than 30 cyclic and acyclic diaryliodonium salts with different substitution patterns were prepared in very good to excellent yields. The reaction was scaled-up to 10 mmol scale giving more than four grams of dibenzo[b,d]iodol-5-ium trifluoromethanesulfonate (>95%) in less than three hours. The solvent mixture of the large-scale experiment was recovered (>97%) and recycled several times without significant reduction in yield.