PD-L1 and PD-L2 expression in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma and their correlation with immune infiltrates and DNA damage response molecules

SPHK1 promotes bladder cancer metastasis via PD-L2/c-Src/FAK signaling cascade

SPHK1 (sphingosine kinase type 1) is characterized as a rate-limiting enzyme in sphingolipid metabolism to phosphorylate sphingosine into sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) that can bind to S1P receptors (S1PRs) to initiate several signal transductions leading to cell proliferation and survival of normal cell. Many studies have indicated that SPHK1 is involved in several types of cancer development, however, a little is known in bladder cancer. The TCGA database analysis was utilized for analyzing the clinical relevance of SPHK1 in bladder cancer. Through CRISPR/Cas9 knockout (KO) and constitutive activation (CA) strategies on SPHK1 in the bladder cancer cells, we demonstrated the potential downstream target could be programmed cell death 1 ligand 2 (PD-L2). On the other hand, we demonstrated that FDA-approved SPHK1 inhibitor Gilenya® (FTY720) can successfully suppress bladder cancer metastasis by in vitro and in vivo approaches. This finding indicated that SPHK1 as a potent therapeutic target for metastatic bladder cancer by dissecting the mechanism of action, SPHK1/S1P-elicited Akt/β-catenin activation promoted the induction of PD-L2 that is a downstream effector in facilitating bladder cancer invasion and migration. Notably, PD-L2 interacted with c-Src that further activates FAK. Here, we unveil the clinical relevance of SPHK1 in bladder cancer progression and the driver role in bladder cancer metastasis. Moreover, we demonstrated the inhibitory effect of FDA-approved SPHK1 inhibitor FTY720 on bladder cancer metastasis from both in vitro and in vivo models.

Current and future immunotherapeutic approaches in pancreatic cancer treatment

Pancreatic cancer is a major cause of cancer-related death, but despondently, the outlook and prognosis for this resistant type of tumor have remained grim for a long time. Currently, it is extremely challenging to prevent or detect it early enough for effective treatment because patients rarely exhibit symptoms and there are no reliable indicators for detection. Most patients have advanced or spreading cancer that is difficult to treat, and treatments like chemotherapy and radiotherapy can only slightly prolong their life by a few months. Immunotherapy has revolutionized the treatment of pancreatic cancer, yet its effectiveness is limited by the tumor's immunosuppressive and hard-to-reach microenvironment. First, this article explains the immunosuppressive microenvironment of pancreatic cancer and highlights a wide range of immunotherapy options, including therapies involving oncolytic viruses, modified T cells (T-cell receptor [TCR]-engineered and chimeric antigen receptor [CAR] T-cell therapy), CAR natural killer cell therapy, cytokine-induced killer cells, immune checkpoint inhibitors, immunomodulators, cancer vaccines, and strategies targeting myeloid cells in the context of contemporary knowledge and future trends. Lastly, it discusses the main challenges ahead of pancreatic cancer immunotherapy.

An overview of up-and-coming immune checkpoint inhibitors for pancreatic cancer

INTRODUCTION

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) targeting programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1/PD-L1) pathway as well as cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4) have demonstrated substantial potential in several malignancies. Pancreatic adenocarcinoma (PC) still carries a high mortality despite tremendous advances in the anti-cancer arsenal.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we discuss completed and ongoing studies on various ICIs in PC. ICIs have not yielded significant benefits as monotherapy. However, the combination with currently utilized therapies as well as with several other newer forms of therapy has delineated encouraging results. Larger trials are currently underway to definitively characterize the utility of ICIs in the treatment algorithm of PC. ICIs are approved for cancers with mismatch repair deficiency (dMMR) or microsatellite instability-high tumors (MSI-H) as a tumor-agnostic treatment strategy usually referred to as hot tumors.

EXPERT OPINION

Studies evaluating different drugs to transform the tumor microenvironment (TME) from 'cold' to 'hot' have not shown promise in PC. There still needs to be more prospective trials evaluating the efficacy of the combination of ICIs with different therapeutic modalities in PC that can augment the immunogenic potential of those 'cold' tumors. Exploratory biomarker analysis may help us identify those subsets of PC patients who may particularly benefit from ICIs.

Spatial immune composition of tumor microenvironment in patients with pancreatic cancer

This study examined the composition of the immune microenvironment at different sites within resected pancreas specimens from patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Therefore, single-cell suspensions were made from fresh tumor and non-tumorous tissue. Fourteen patients were included from whom twelve PDAC and five non-tumorous samples were obtained. These samples were analyzed with a nineteen marker panel on the Aurora spectral flow cytometer. Furthermore, slides from formalin-fixed paraffine PDACs of eight additional patients were stained with eight markers and analyzed by multispectral imaging. These corresponded to central tumor, periphery of the tumor, i.e., invasive front and resected lymph node and were divided into tumor and adjacent tissue. In the single-cell suspension, a decreased ratio between lymphoid and myeloid cells and between M1 and M2 macrophages was observed in the tumor tissue compared to non-tumorous tissue. Furthermore, an increase in CD169 + macrophages in patients undergoing neoadjuvant therapy was found. Using immunofluorescence, more macrophages compared to T cells were observed, as well as a lower ratio of CD8 to M2 macrophage, a higher ratio of CD4-CD8 T cells and a higher ratio of immune-suppressive cells to pro-inflammatory cells in the PDAC area compared to the adjacent non-tumorous tissue. Finally, there were more immune-suppressive cells in the central tumor area compared to the invasive front. In conclusion, we show a gradient in the immune-suppressive environment in PDAC from most suppressive in the central tumor to least suppressive in distant non-tumorous tissue.

Advances in Immunotherapeutics in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) accounts for up to 95% of all pancreatic cancer cases and is the seventh-leading cause of cancer death. Poor prognosis is a result of late presentation, a lack of screening tests and the fact some patients develop resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Novel therapies like immunotherapeutics have been of recent interest in pancreatic cancer. However, this field remains in its infancy with much to unravel. Immunotherapy and other targeted therapies have yet to yield significant progress in treating PDAC, primarily due to our limited understanding of the disease immune mechanisms and its intricate interactions with the tumour microenvironment (TME). In this review we provide an overview of current novel immunotherapies which have been studied in the field of pancreatic cancer. We discuss their mechanisms, evidence available in pancreatic cancer as well as the limitations of such therapies. We showcase the potential role of combining novel therapies in PDAC, postulate their potential clinical implications and the hurdles associated with their use in PDAC. Therapies discussed with include programmed death checkpoint inhibitors, Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein 4, Chimeric Antigen Receptor-T cell therapy, oncolytic viral therapy and vaccine therapies including KRAS vaccines, Telomerase vaccines, Gastrin Vaccines, Survivin-targeting vaccines, Heat-shock protein (HSP) peptide complex-based vaccines, MUC-1 targeting vaccines, Listeria based vaccines and Dendritic cell-based vaccines.

High glucose-upregulated PD-L1 expression through RAS signaling-driven downregulation of PTRH1 leads to suppression of T cell cytotoxic function in tumor environment

BACKGROUND

Nearly 80% of patients with pancreatic cancer suffer from glucose intolerance or diabetes. Pancreatic cancer complicated by diabetes has a more immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) and is associated with a worse prognosis. The relationship between glucose metabolism and programmed cell death-Ligand 1 (PD-L1) is close and complex. It is important to explore the regulation of high glucose on PD-L1 expression in pancreatic cancer and its effect on infiltrating immune effectors in the tumor microenvironment.

METHODS

Diabetic murine models (C57BL/6) were used to reveal different immune landscape in euglycemic and hyperglycemic pancreatic tumor microenvironment. Bioinformatics, WB, iRIP [Improved RNA Binding Protein (RBP) Immunoprecipitation]-seq were used to confirm the potential regulating role of peptidyl-tRNA hydrolase 1 homolog (PTRH1) on the stability of the PD-L1 mRNA. Postoperative specimens were used to identify the expression of PD-L1 and PTRH1 in pancreatic cancer. Co-culturing T cells with pancreatic cancer cells to explore the immunosuppressive effect of pancreatic tumor cells.

RESULTS

Our results revealed that a high dose of glucose enhanced the stability of the PD-L1 mRNA in pancreatic tumor cells by downregulating PTRH1 through RAS signaling pathway activation following epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) stimulation. PTRH1 overexpression significantly suppressed PD-L1 expression in pancreatic cells and improved the proportion and cytotoxic function of CD8⁺ T cells in the pancreatic TME of diabetic mice.

CONCLUSIONS

PTRH1, an RBP, plays a key role in the regulation of PD-L1 by high glucose and is closely related to anti-tumor immunity in the pancreatic TME.

The Immune Checkpoint Landscape in Tumor Cells of Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma

Immune checkpoint therapy (ICT) has shown promising potential in the treatment of multiple solid tumors. However, the role of ICT in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) remains limited. Patterns of immune checkpoints (ICs) in PDAC represent the basis for establishing a potent ICT. The aim of this study is to create a profile of IC expression and its prognostic relevance in cancer cells of PDAC. Therefore, tumor cells from peripheral and central tissue microarray (TMA) spots from histologically confirmed PDAC of 68 patients after tumor resection were investigated in terms of expressions of TIM3, IDO, B7H4, LAG3, VISTA, and PD-L1 using immunohistochemistry. The presence of the respective ICs was compared to overall survival (OS). The presence of VISTA and PD-L1 significantly correlates with shorter OS (median OS: 22 months vs. 7 months and 22 months vs. 11 months, respectively, p < 0.05). For the presence of TIM3, IDO, B7H4, and LAG3, no difference in OS was observed (p > 0.05). The analysis of OS of combined subgroups for VISTA and PD-L1 (VISTA and PD-L1 neg., VISTA pos. and PD-L1 neg., VISTA neg. and PD-L1 pos., and VISTA and PD-L1 pos.) yielded overall statistical significance difference (p = 0.02). These results suggest that the presence of VISTA and PD-L1 is of prognostic relevance and potentially qualifies them as targets for ICT.

B7 Family Members in Pancreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma: Attractive Targets for Cancer Immunotherapy

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is one of the deadliest cancers, with a five-year survival rate of approximately 5-10%. The immune checkpoint blockade represented by PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors has been effective in a variety of solid tumors but has had little clinical response in pancreatic cancer patients. The unique suppressive immune microenvironment is the primary reason for this outcome, and it is essential to identify key targets to remodel the immune microenvironment. Some B7 family immune checkpoints, particularly PD-L1, PD-L2, B7-H3, B7-H4, VISTA and HHLA2, have been identified as playing a significant role in the control of tumor immune responses. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the recent research progress of some members of the B7 family in pancreatic cancer, which revealed that they can be involved in tumor progression through immune-dependent and non-immune-dependent pathways, highlighting the mechanisms of their involvement in tumor immune escape and assessing the prospects of their clinical application. Targeting B7 family immune checkpoints is expected to result in novel immunotherapeutic treatments for patients with pancreatic cancer.

Intratumoral neutrophil extracellular traps are associated with unfavorable clinical outcomes and immunogenic context in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

Extracellular traps (ETs) and tumor-infiltrating immune cells play crucial roles in tumor progression. However, little is known about the clinical significance of tumor-infiltrating neutrophils and macrophages and the related ETs in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). This study investigates the associations between neutrophil or macrophage infiltration or ET formation and the clinicopathological features, molecular characteristics, immune checkpoint molecules, clinical outcomes, and response to adjuvant chemotherapy (ACT) in PDAC. We performed multiplex immunofluorescence staining to detect ET formation by neutrophils or macrophages using tissue microarrays obtained from 205 patients, and analyzed the immunohistochemistry data for PD-L1, PD-L2, B7-H3, and B7-H4. The ET expression rates in macrophages and neutrophils were 23.9% and 45.4%, respectively. Patients with a high density of neutrophils or positive expression of neutrophil ETs exhibited poorer progression-free survival (PFS) and disease-specific survival (DSS), whereas macrophage ETs were not related to PFS and DSS. Neutrophil infiltration and ET formation were identified as independent prognostic predictors of DSS using univariate and multivariate Cox analyses. Patients with PDAC with lower neutrophil infiltration or negative staining for neutrophil ETs are more likely to benefit from ACT. Patients with PDAC were more accurately stratified based on the infiltration of neutrophils and presence of neutrophil ETs, and patients with low neutrophil infiltration and negative staining for neutrophil ETs showed the best survival. Patients with positive neutrophil ETs demonstrated inferior DSS compared to those with negative neutrophil ETs in the PD-L1 tumor proportion score (TPS) < 1% and PD-L1 IC < 1% subgroups. However, the positive expression of neutrophil ETs was not related to DSS in the PD-L1 TPS ≥ 1% or PD-L1 IC ≥ 1% subgroup. Our findings emphasize the potential of neutrophil infiltration and ETs as prognostic markers that could guide the formulation of more effective personalized treatments for PDAC.

Analysis of a novel immune checkpoint, Siglec-15, in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma

Siglec‐15, a novel immune checkpoint, is an emerging target for next‐generation cancer immunotherapy. However, the role of Siglec‐15 in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) remains poorly understood. We investigated the expression of Siglec‐15 and its association with clinicopathological characteristics, programmed cell death‐ligand 1 (PD‐L1), immune cells, and DNA damage repair (DDR) molecules in a cohort of 291 patients with PDAC. Positive tumour cell expression of Siglec‐15 and PD‐L1 was observed in 18.6 and 30.3% of the samples, respectively. We also detected Siglec‐15 positivity in macrophages in 3.4% of patients. Co‐expression of Siglec‐15 with PD‐L1 was observed in 6.1% of the patients. A total of 33 PD‐L1‐negative samples (18.0%) were Siglec‐15‐positive. Siglec‐15 was observed more frequently in moderate‐to‐well‐differentiated tumours. Siglec‐15 was associated with a low density of Tregs and CD45RO T cells, high BRCA1 expression, and improved survival. Both Siglec‐15 and PD‐L1 are independent factors of patient outcomes. The prognostic significance of Siglec‐15 for survival was more discriminative in lymph node‐negative, high BRCA1 expression, or low BRCA2 expression tumours than in lymph node‐positive, low BRCA1 expression, or high BRCA2 expression tumours. In conclusion, we identified Siglec‐15 as a promising predictor for prognosis combined with different DDR molecular statuses and complex tumour‐infiltrating cells in PDAC. Targeting Siglec‐15 may be a novel therapeutic option for patients who are unresponsive to anti‐PD‐1 therapy. Future studies are needed to validate the prognostic significance of Siglec‐15 and to investigate its regulatory mechanisms in this disease.