Evidence that MAP-2 may be involved in pigment granule transport in squirrel fish erythrophores

Cadherin-8 and N-cadherin differentially regulate pre- and postsynaptic development of the hippocampal mossy fiber pathway

Cells sort into regions and groups in part by their selective surface expression of particular classic cadherins during development. In the nervous system, cadherin-based sorting can define axon tracts, restrict axonal and dendritic arbors to particular regions or layers, and may encode certain aspects of synapse specificity. The underlying model has been that afferents and their targets hold in common the expression of a particular cadherin, thereby providing a recognition code of homophilic cadherin binding. However, most neurons express multiple cadherins, and it is not clear whether multiple cadherins all act similarly in shaping neural circuitry. Here we asked how two such cadherins, cadherin-8 and N-cadherin, influence the guidance and differentiation of hippocampal mossy fibers. Using organotypic hippocampal cultures, we find that cadherin-8 regulates mossy fiber fasciculation and targeting, but has little effect on CA3 dendrites. In contrast, N-cadherin regulates mossy fiber fasciculation, but has little impact on axonal growth and targeting. However, N-cadherin is essential for CA3 dendrite arborization. Both cadherins are required for formation of proper numbers of presynaptic terminals. Mechanistically, such differential actions of these two cadherins could, in theory, reflect coupling to distinct intracellular binding partners. However, we find that both cadherins bind beta-catenin in dentate gyrus (DG). This suggests that cadherins may engage different intracellular signaling cascades downstream of beta-catenin, coopt different extracellular binding partners, or target distinct subcellular domains. Together our findings demonstrate that cadherin-8 and N-cadherin are critical for generating the mossy fiber pathway, but that each contributes differentially to afferent and target differentiation, thereby complementing one another in the assembly of a synaptic circuit.

Pre- and postsynaptic localization of RC3/neurogranin in the adult rat spinal cord: an immunohistochemical study

RC3 (neurogranin; BICKS) is a neuron-specific calmodulin-binding protein kinase C substrate. Thus far, immunohistochemical studies on the localization of RC3 revealed its presence in all neuronal phenotypes, which were restricted to specific areas in the neostriatum, the neocortex, and the hippocampus. RC3 was mostly found in cell bodies and dendrites, with some infrequent presence in axonal profiles, i.e. in the internal capsule. Until now, RC3 expression was reported to be absent in the adult rat spinal cord. RC3 might, however, act as an intermediate of protein kinase C-mediated signaling pathways during synaptic development and plasticity. We hypothesized a role for this 78-amino-acid protein in dendritic plasticity occurring after spinal cord injury. To our surprise, an immunohistological analysis of the uninjured adult rat spinal cord revealed the presence of RC3-positive cell bodies and dendrites in specific regions in the gray matter. Interestingly, axon-containing structures, such as the dorsal and ventral corticospinal tract, were also found to be RC3-positive. This axonal labeling was confirmed by preembedding electron microscopy. In conclusion, we demonstrate here that RC3 is present in the adult rat spinal cord in pre- and postsynaptic structures.

Intracellular calcium and cAMP regulate directional pigment movements in teleost erythrophores

Teleost pigment cells (erythrophores and melanophores) are useful models for studying the regulation of rapid, microtubule-dependent organelle transport. Previous studies suggest that melanophores regulate the direction of pigment movements via changes in intracellular cAMP (Rozdzial and Haimo, 1986a; Sammak et al., 1992), whereas erythrophores may use calcium- (Ca(2+)-) based regulation (Luby-Phelps and Porter, 1982; McNiven and Ward, 1988). Despite these observations, there have been no direct measurements in intact erythrophores or any cell type correlating changes of intracellular free Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) with organelle movements. Here we demonstrate that extracellular Ca2+ is necessary and that a Ca2+ influx via microinjection is sufficient to induce pigment aggregation in erythrophores, but not melanophores of squirrel fish. Using the Ca(2+)-sensitive indicator, Fura-2, we demonstrate that [Ca2+]i rises dramatically concomitant with aggregation of pigment granules in erythrophores, but not melanophores. In addition, we find that an erythrophore stimulated to aggregate pigment will immediately transmit a rise in [Ca2+]i to neighboring cells, suggesting that these cells are electrically coupled. Surprisingly, we find that a fall in [Ca2+]i is not sufficient to induce pigment dispersion in erythrophores, contrary to the findings obtained with the ionophore and lysed-cell models (Luby-Phelps and Porter, 1982; McNiven and Ward, 1988). We find that a rise in intracellular cAMP ([cAMP]i) induces pigment dispersion, and that this dispersive stimulus can be overridden by an aggregation stimulus, suggesting that both high [cAMP]i and low [Ca2+]i are necessary to produce pigment dispersion in erythrophores.

Alterations in slow transport kinetics induced by estramustine phosphate, an agent binding to microtubule-associated proteins

Estramustine phosphate (EP) disassembles microtubules by binding to microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) rather than tubulin. In this study, EP-induced alterations of MAP integrity caused a unique form of axonal atrophy in rats. Initially, EP-induced axonal atrophy occurred in both proximal and distal axons of the sciatic nerve, characterized by an increase in neurofilament packing density, associated with a decrease in axonal area. In chronic exposure, distal axonal atrophy was associated with decreased numbers of microtubules, while the neurofilament number remained unaltered for the myelin spiral length. Continued exposure caused enlargement of proximal axons associated with an increase in neurofilament content. Correlative slow transport studies done at two different times, 7 and 14 days after [35S] methionine injection showed that EP retards the transport of cytoskeletal proteins migrating with both components of slow transport (SCa and SCb). However, there was a differential effect on SCb which showed progressive slowing along the nerve while the rate of SCa stayed relatively constant. In this model, the early occurring distal axonal atrophy can best be explained by reduced cytoskeletal components, particularly those traveling in SCb. Later in the course of intoxication, a relatively constant rate of SCa permitted continuous transport of neurofilament triplets, accounting for unaltered numbers of neurofilaments in distal axons with increased packing density. This model of axonal atrophy is unique because spacing of neurofilaments, not numbers determined axon size. Furthermore, EP-induced dissociation of the SCa and SCb kinetics suggests that MAPs play a role in the orderly, cohesive migration of slow transport components, essential for the normal organization of cytoskeleton.

Does the introduction of a new player, the endoplasmic reticulum, create more or less confusion in understanding the mechanism(s) of pigmentary organelle translocations?

In 1925, Wilson listed, in his classic third edition of Cell in Development and Heredity, four theories for the morphological and physiological characteristics of cytoplasm; each theory provided some sort of explanation as to the mechanism(s) of organelle translocations. During the past twenty years, cell biologists have focused their attentions on the cell's cytoskeleton, microtrabecular lattice, and associated mechanochemical motors which drive organelles along cytoskeletal tracks. A number of cell types have been used to study organelle translocations, but chromatophores, pigment cells, from cold-blooded vertebrates have been one of the more popular models. This article reviews some of the research findings during the past twenty years, particularly those involving cytoplasmic elements: i.e, microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules, and mechanochemical motors. In addition, it contrasts the proposed involvement of these elements in organelle translocations with the endoplasmic reticulum, a tubulovesicular organelle, which we recently demonstrated is responsible, through its elongation or retraction, for the translocations of carotenoid droplets in goldfish xanthophores and swordtail fish erythrophores. Here, the carotenoid droplets are not free in the cytoplasm and do not translocate via cytoskeletal tracks, but instead are attached to or are a part of the endoplasmic reticulum. On the other hand, carotenoid droplets of squirrel fish erythrophores are free in the cytoplasm and appear to translocate via microtubules. Finally, the rates of pigmentary organelle translocations are reviewed in light of the participation of the cytoskeletal elements with the endoplasmic reticulum.

Microtubule-associated proteins from Antarctic fishes

Microtubules and presumptive microtubule-associated proteins (MAPs) were isolated from the brain tissues of four Antarctic fishes (Notothenia gibberifrons, N. coriiceps neglecta, Chaenocephalus aceratus, and a Chionodraco sp.) by means of a taxol-dependent, microtubule-affinity procedure (cf. Vallee: Journal of Cell Biology 92:435-442, 1982). MAPs from these fishes were similar to each other in electrophoretic pattern. Prominent in each preparation were proteins in the molecular weight ranges 410,000-430,000, 220,000-280,000, 140,000-155,000, 85,000-95,000, 40,000-45,000, and 32,000-34,000. The surfaces of MAP-rich microtubules were decorated by numerous filamentous projections. Exposure to elevated ionic strength released the MAPs from the microtubules and also removed the filamentous projections. Addition of fish MAPs to subcritical concentrations of fish tubulins at 0-5 degrees C induced the assembly of microtubules. Both the rate and the extent of this assembly increased with increasing concentrations of the MAPs. Sedimentation revealed that approximately six proteins, with apparent molecular weights between 60,000 and 300,000, became incorporated into the microtubule polymer. Bovine MAPs promoted microtubule formation by fish tubulin at 2-5 degrees C, and proteins corresponding to MAPs 1 and 2 co-sedimented with the polymer. MAPs from C. aceratus also enhanced the polymerization of bovine tubulin at 33 degrees C, but the microtubules depolymerized at 0 degrees C. We conclude that MAPs are part of the microtubules of Antarctic fishes, that these proteins promote microtubule assembly in much the same way as mammalian MAPs, and that they do not possess special capacities to promote microtubule assembly at low temperatures or to prevent cold-induced microtubule depolymerization.

Estramustine binds a MAP-1-like protein to inhibit microtubule assembly in vitro and disrupt microtubule organization in DU 145 cells

The twofold purpose of the study was (a) to determine if a MAP-1-like protein was expressed in human prostatic DU 145 cells and (b) to demonstrate whether a novel antimicrotubule drug, estramustine, binds the MAP-1-like protein to disrupt microtubules. SDS-PAGE and Western blots showed that a 330-kD protein was associated with microtubules isolated in an assembly buffer containing 10 microM taxol and 10 mM adenylylimidodiphosphate. After purification to homogeneity on an A5m agarose column, the 330-kD protein was found to promote 6 S tubulin assembly. Turbidimetric (A350), SDS-PAGE, and electron microscopic studies revealed that micromolar estramustine inhibited assembly promoted by the 330-kD protein. Similarly, estramustine inhibited binding of the 330-kD protein to 6-S microtubules independently stimulated to assemble with taxol. Immunofluorescent studies with beta-tubulin antibody (27B) and MAP-1 antibody (MI-AI) revealed that 60 microM estramustine (a) caused disassembly of MAP-1 microtubules in DU 145 cells and (b) removed MAP-1 from the surfaces of microtubules stabilized with 0.1 microM taxol. Taken together the data suggested that estramustine binds to a 330-kD MAP-1-like protein to disrupt microtubules in tumor cells.

Evidence for intermediate filaments in squirrelfish erythrophores of Holocentrus ascensionus (Rufus)

We have documented the presence of intermediate filaments (IF) in cultured erythrophores of the squirrelfish Holocentrus ascensionus (Rufus). SDS-PAGE and Western blots with monoclonal antibodies T11 and R12 demonstrated that isolated IF consisted of a pair of polypeptides of 54 and 52 kDa. Immunofluorescent studies revealed that the two proteins formed prominent radially oriented IF networks in erythrophores. Immunoelectron microscopic studies showed that the IF were distributed in a "spider-web"-like network of filaments which occasionally intersected with the microtubule surfaces. The IF proteins also were found in fish iridiphores but not in fish epithelial cells which cocultured with the chromatophores.