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Gruber N, Fernández-Canigia L, Kilimciler NB, Stipa P, Bisceglia JA, García MB, Gonzalez Maglio DH, Paz ML, Orelli LR. Amidinoquinoxaline N-oxides: synthesis and activity against anaerobic bacteria. RSC Adv 2023; 13:27391-27402. [PMID: 37711381 PMCID: PMC10498151 DOI: 10.1039/d3ra01184d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023] Open
Abstract
We present herein an in-depth study on the activity of amidinoquinoxaline N-oxides 1 against Gram-positive and Gram-negative anaerobic bacteria. Based on 5-phenyl-2,3-dihydropyrimidoquinoxaline N-oxide 1a, the selected structural variations included in our study comprise the substituents α- to the N-oxide function, the benzofused ring, substitution and quaternization of the amidine moiety, and the amidine ring size. Compounds 1 showed good to excellent antianaerobic activity, evaluated as the corresponding CIM50 and CIM90 values, and an antimicrobial spectrum similar to metronidazole. Six out of 13 compounds 1 had CIM90 values significantly lower than the reference drug. Among them, imidazoline derivatives 1i-l were the most active structures. Such compounds were synthesized by base-promoted ring closure of the corresponding amidines. The N-oxides under study showed no significant cytotoxicity against RAW 264.7 cells, with high selectivity indexes. Their calculated ADME properties indicate that the compounds are potentially good oral drug candidates. The antianaerobic activity correlated satisfactorily with the electron affinity of the compounds, suggesting that they may undergo bioreductive activation before exerting their antibacterial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadia Gruber
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Química Orgánica II, Departamento de Ciencias Químicas, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica Junín 956 (1113) Buenos Aires Argentina
| | | | - Natalia B Kilimciler
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Química Orgánica II, Departamento de Ciencias Químicas, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica Junín 956 (1113) Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Pierluigi Stipa
- SIMAU Departament - Chemistry Division, Università Politecnica delle Marche Via Brecce Bianche 12 Ancona (I-60131) Italy
| | - Juan A Bisceglia
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Química Orgánica II, Departamento de Ciencias Químicas, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica Junín 956 (1113) Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - María B García
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Química Orgánica II, Departamento de Ciencias Químicas, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica Junín 956 (1113) Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Daniel H Gonzalez Maglio
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Estudios de la Inmunidad Humoral (IDEHU), Cátedra de Inmunología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica Junín 956 (1113) Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Mariela L Paz
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Estudios de la Inmunidad Humoral (IDEHU), Cátedra de Inmunología, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica Junín 956 (1113) Buenos Aires Argentina
| | - Liliana R Orelli
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, CONICET, Química Orgánica II, Departamento de Ciencias Químicas, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica Junín 956 (1113) Buenos Aires Argentina
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2
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Hu X, Dong R, Huang S, Zeng Y, Zhan W, Gao X, Tian D, Peng J, Xu J, Wang T, Zhang Y, Wang X, Zhang X, Liu J, Guang B, Yang T. CDBN-YGXZ, a Novel Small-Molecule Drug, Shows Efficacy against Clostridioides difficile Infection and Recurrence in Mouse and Hamster Infection Models. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2023; 67:e0170422. [PMID: 37052498 PMCID: PMC10190532 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01704-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) causes severe diarrhea and colitis, leading to significant morbidity, mortality, and high medical costs worldwide. Oral vancomycin, a first-line treatment for CDI, is associated with a high risk of recurrence, necessitating novel therapies for primary and recurrent CDI. A novel small-molecule compound, CDBN-YGXZ, was synthesized by modifying the benzene ring of nitazoxanide with lauric acid. The mechanism of action of CDBN-YGXZ was validated using a pyruvate:ferredoxin/flavodoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR) inhibition assay. The efficacy of CDBN-YGXZ was evaluated using the MIC test and CDI infection model in mice and hamsters. Furthermore, metagenomics was used to reveal the underlying reasons for the effective reduction or prevention of CDI after CDBN-YGXZ treatment. The inhibitory activity against PFOR induced by CDBN-YGXZ. MIC tests showed that the in vitro activity of CDBN-YGXZ against C. difficile ranging from 0.1 to 1.5 μg/mL. In the mouse and hamster CDI models, CDBN-YGXZ provided protection during both treatment and relapse, while vancomycin treatment resulted in severe relapse and significant clinical scores. Compared with global effects on the indigenous gut microbiota induced by vancomycin, CDBN-YGXZ treatment had a mild influence on gut microbes, thus resulting in the disappearance or reduction of CDI recurrence. CDBN-YGXZ displayed potent activity against C. difficile in vitro and in vivo, reducing or preventing relapse in infected animals, which could merit further development as a potential drug candidate for treating CDI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojun Hu
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Renhan Dong
- Chengdu Biobel Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Sheng Huang
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Yisheng Zeng
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Wei Zhan
- Chengdu Biobel Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Xiaofang Gao
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Dong Tian
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Jian Peng
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Jiewei Xu
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Ting Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Yaying Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Xiaohui Wang
- Center of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Xiaoxia Zhang
- Center of Infectious Diseases, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Jin Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Bing Guang
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
- Chengdu Biobel Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
| | - Tai Yang
- School of Pharmacy, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China
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Livinghouse T, Koenig HN, Demeritte AR, Nelson GP. N-(Trimethylsilyl)-2-amino-5-nitrothiazole: An Efficient Reagent for the Direct Synthesis of 2-Amino-5-nitrothiazole-Based Antimicrobial Agents. Synlett 2022. [DOI: 10.1055/s-0042-1752343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
AbstractHere we report the synthesis of a novel reagent designed to prepare 2-amino-5-nitrothiazole (ANT) amides and analogues in high yields. N-(Trimethylsilyl)-2-amino-5-nitrothiazole (N-(TMS)-ANT) was prepared in 99% yield via silylation of ANT using 1,1,1,3,3,3-hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS), trimethylsilyl chloride (TMSCl), and catalytic saccharin. N-(TMS)-ANT is a superb reagent for the preparation of ANT amides in excellent yields. Notably, cyclic anhydrides and base-sensitive acyl chlorides can be utilized with N-(TMS)-ANT to furnish ANT amides that are difficult to prepare by previously reported procedures.
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4
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Synthesis and antiplasmodial assessment of nitazoxanide and analogs as new antimalarial candidates. Med Chem Res 2022; 31:426-435. [PMID: 35106047 PMCID: PMC8794615 DOI: 10.1007/s00044-021-02843-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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5
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Santos GC, Martins LM, Bregadiolli BA, Moreno VF, Silva‐Filho LC, Silva BHST. Heterocyclic compounds as antiviral drugs: Synthesis, structure–activity relationship and traditional applications. J Heterocycl Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/jhet.4349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Vitor Fernandes Moreno
- School of Sciences, Department of Chemistry São Paulo State University (UNESP) Bauru Brazil
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6
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Novel Nitro-Heteroaromatic Antimicrobial Agents for the Control and Eradication of Biofilm-Forming Bacteria. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:antibiotics10070855. [PMID: 34356776 PMCID: PMC8300661 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10070855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The synthesis and biological activity of several novel nitrothiazole, nitrobenzothiazole, and nitrofuran containing antimicrobial agents for the eradication of biofilm-forming Gram-negative and Gram-positive pathogens is described. Nitazoxanide (NTZ), nitrofurantoin, and furazolidone are commercial antimicrobials which were used as models to show how structural modification improved activity toward planktonic bacteria via minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) assays and biofilms via minimum biofilm eradication concentration (MBEC) assays. Structure–activity relationship (SAR) studies illustrate the ways in which improvements have been made to the aforementioned antimicrobial agents. It is of particular interest in this regard that the introduction of a chloro substituent at the 5-position of NTZ (analog 1b) resulted in marked activity enhancement, as did the replacement of the 2-acetoxy substituent in the latter compound with a basic amine group (analog 7b). It is also of importance that analog 4a, which is a simple methacrylamide, displayed noteworthy activity against S. epidermidis biofilms. These lead compounds identified to have high activity towards biofilms provide promise as starting points in future pro-drug studies.
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7
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Ahmed T, Rahman SMA, Asaduzzaman M, Islam ABMMK, Chowdhury AKA. Synthesis, in vitro bioassays, and computational study of heteroaryl nitazoxanide analogs. Pharmacol Res Perspect 2021; 9:e00800. [PMID: 34086411 PMCID: PMC8177060 DOI: 10.1002/prp2.800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Antiprotozoal drug nitazoxanide (NTZ) has shown diverse pharmacological properties and has appeared in several clinical trials. Herein we present the synthesis, characterization, in vitro biological investigation, and in silico study of four hetero aryl amide analogs of NTZ. Among the synthesized molecules, compound 2 and compound 4 exhibited promising antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli (E. coli), superior to that displayed by the parent drug nitazoxanide as revealed from the in vitro antibacterial assay. Compound 2 displayed zone of inhibition of 20 mm, twice as large as the parent drug NTZ (10 mm) in their least concentration (12.5 µg/ml). Compound 1 also showed antibacterial effect similar to that of nitazoxanide. The analogs were also tested for in vitro cytotoxic activity by employing cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay technique in HeLa cell line, and compound 2 was identified as a potential anticancer agent having IC50 value of 172 µg which proves it to be more potent than nitazoxanide (IC50 = 428 µg). Furthermore, the compounds were subjected to molecular docking study against various bacterial and cancer signaling proteins. The in vitro test results corroborated with the in silico docking study as compound 2 and compound 4 had comparatively stronger binding affinity against the proteins and showed a higher docking score than nitazoxanide toward human mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK9) and fatty acid biosynthesis enzyme (FabH) of E. coli. Moreover, the docking study demonstrated dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) and thymidylate synthase (TS) as probable new targets for nitazoxanide and its synthetic analogs. Overall, the study suggests that nitazoxanide and its analogs can be a potential lead compound in the drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tasmia Ahmed
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and PharmacologyFaculty of PharmacyUniversity of DhakaDhakaBangladesh
| | - S. M. Abdur Rahman
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and PharmacologyFaculty of PharmacyUniversity of DhakaDhakaBangladesh
| | - Muhammad Asaduzzaman
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and PharmacologyFaculty of PharmacyUniversity of DhakaDhakaBangladesh
| | | | - A. K. Azad Chowdhury
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and PharmacologyFaculty of PharmacyUniversity of DhakaDhakaBangladesh
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8
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Psonis JJ, Chahales P, Henderson NS, Rigel NW, Hoffman PS, Thanassi DG. The small molecule nitazoxanide selectively disrupts BAM-mediated folding of the outer membrane usher protein. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:14357-14369. [PMID: 31391254 PMCID: PMC6768635 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.009616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 07/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial pathogens assemble adhesive surface structures termed pili or fimbriae to initiate and sustain infection of host tissues. Uropathogenic Escherichia coli, the primary causative agent of urinary tract infections, expresses type 1 and P pili required for colonization of the bladder and kidney, respectively. These pili are assembled by the conserved chaperone-usher (CU) pathway, in which a periplasmic chaperone works together with an outer membrane (OM) usher protein to build and secrete the pilus fiber. Previously, we found that the small molecule and antiparasitic drug nitazoxanide (NTZ) inhibits CU pathway-mediated pilus biogenesis in E. coli by specifically interfering with proper maturation of the usher protein in the OM. The usher is folded and inserted into the OM by the β-barrel assembly machine (BAM) complex, which in E. coli comprises five proteins, BamA-E. Here, we show that sensitivity of the usher to NTZ is modulated by BAM expression levels and requires the BamB and BamE lipoproteins. Furthermore, a genetic screen for NTZ-resistant bacterial mutants isolated a mutation in the essential BamD lipoprotein. These findings suggest that NTZ selectively interferes with an usher-specific arm of the BAM complex, revealing new details of the usher folding pathway and BAM complex function. Evaluation of a set of NTZ derivatives identified compounds with increased potency and disclosed that NTZ's nitrothiazole ring is critical for usher inhibition. In summary, our findings indicate highly specific effects of NTZ on the usher folding pathway and have uncovered NTZ analogs that specifically decrease usher levels in the OM.
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Affiliation(s)
- John J Psonis
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794
| | - Peter Chahales
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794
| | - Nadine S Henderson
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794
| | - Nathan W Rigel
- Department of Biology, Hofstra University, Hempstead, New York 11549
| | - Paul S Hoffman
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases and International Health, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22908
| | - David G Thanassi
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York 11794
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9
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Buchieri MV, Cimino M, Rebollo-Ramirez S, Beauvineau C, Cascioferro A, Favre-Rochex S, Helynck O, Naud-Martin D, Larrouy-Maumus G, Munier-Lehmann H, Gicquel B. Nitazoxanide Analogs Require Nitroreduction for Antimicrobial Activity in Mycobacterium smegmatis. J Med Chem 2017; 60:7425-7433. [PMID: 28846409 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.7b00726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we aimed to decipher the natural resistance mechanisms of mycobacteria against novel compounds isolated by whole-cell-based high-throughput screening (HTS). We identified active compounds using Mycobacterium aurum. Further analyses were performed to determine the resistance mechanism of M. smegmatis against one hit, 3-bromo-N-(5-nitrothiazol-2-yl)-4-propoxybenzamide (3), which turned out to be an analog of the drug nitazoxanide (1). We found that the repression of the gene nfnB coding for the nitroreductase NfnB was responsible for the natural resistance of M. smegmatis against 3. The overexpression of nfnB resulted in sensitivity of M. smegmatis to 3. This compound must be metabolized into hydroxylamine intermediate for exhibiting antibacterial activity. Thus, we describe, for the first time, the activity of a mycobacterial nitroreductase against 1 analogs, highlighting the differences in the metabolism of nitro compounds among mycobacterial species and emphasizing the potential of nitro drugs as antibacterials in various bacterial species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria V Buchieri
- Unité de Génétique Mycobactérienne, Institut Pasteur , 25 Rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Mena Cimino
- Unité de Génétique Mycobactérienne, Institut Pasteur , 25 Rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Sonia Rebollo-Ramirez
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology & Infection, Imperial College London , London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Claire Beauvineau
- PSL Research University,CNRS, INSERM, Chemical Library, Institut Curie UMR9187/U1196, UMR3666/U1143 , 91405 Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Alessandro Cascioferro
- Unité de Pathogénomique Mycobactérienne Intégrée, Institut Pasteur , 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Sandrine Favre-Rochex
- Unité de Génétique Mycobactérienne, Institut Pasteur , 25 Rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Olivier Helynck
- Unité de Chimie et Biocatalyse, Département de Biologie Structurale et Chimie, Institut Pasteur , 25 Rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Delphine Naud-Martin
- PSL Research University,CNRS, INSERM, Chemical Library, Institut Curie UMR9187/U1196, UMR3666/U1143 , 91405 Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Gerald Larrouy-Maumus
- MRC Centre for Molecular Bacteriology & Infection, Imperial College London , London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Hélène Munier-Lehmann
- Unité de Chimie et Biocatalyse, Département de Biologie Structurale et Chimie, Institut Pasteur , 25 Rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
| | - Brigitte Gicquel
- Unité de Génétique Mycobactérienne, Institut Pasteur , 25 Rue du Docteur Roux, 75724 Paris Cedex 15, France
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10
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Synthesis and Antimicrobial Evaluation of Amixicile-Based Inhibitors of the Pyruvate-Ferredoxin Oxidoreductases of Anaerobic Bacteria and Epsilonproteobacteria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2016; 60:3980-7. [PMID: 27090174 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00670-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Amixicile is a promising derivative of nitazoxanide (an antiparasitic therapeutic) developed to treat systemic infections caused by anaerobic bacteria, anaerobic parasites, and members of the Epsilonproteobacteria (Campylobacter and Helicobacter). Amixicile selectively inhibits pyruvate-ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR) and related enzymes by inhibiting the function of the vitamin B1 cofactor (thiamine pyrophosphate) by a novel mechanism. Here, we interrogate the amixicile scaffold, guided by docking simulations, direct PFOR inhibition assays, and MIC tests against Clostridium difficile, Campylobacter jejuni, and Helicobacter pylori Docking simulations revealed that the nitro group present in nitazoxanide interacts with the protonated N4'-aminopyrimidine of thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP). The ortho-propylamine on the benzene ring formed an electrostatic interaction with an aspartic acid moiety (B456) of PFOR that correlated with improved PFOR-inhibitory activity and potency by MIC tests. Aryl substitution with electron-withdrawing groups and substitutions of the propylamine with other alkyl amines or nitrogen-containing heterocycles both improved PFOR inhibition and, in many cases, biological activity against C. difficile Docking simulation results correlate well with mechanistic enzymology and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) studies that show members of this class of antimicrobials to be specific inhibitors of vitamin B1 function by proton abstraction, which is both novel and likely to limit mutation-based drug resistance.
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11
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Jarrad A, Karoli T, Blaskovich MAT, Lyras D, Cooper MA. Clostridium difficile drug pipeline: challenges in discovery and development of new agents. J Med Chem 2015; 58:5164-85. [PMID: 25760275 PMCID: PMC4500462 DOI: 10.1021/jm5016846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
In the past decade Clostridium difficile has become a bacterial pathogen of global significance. Epidemic strains have spread throughout hospitals, while community acquired infections and other sources ensure a constant inoculation of spores into hospitals. In response to the increasing medical burden, a new C. difficile antibiotic, fidaxomicin, was approved in 2011 for the treatment of C. difficile-associated diarrhea. Rudimentary fecal transplants are also being trialed as effective treatments. Despite these advances, therapies that are more effective against C. difficile spores and less damaging to the resident gastrointestinal microbiome and that reduce recurrent disease are still desperately needed. However, bringing a new treatment for C. difficile infection to market involves particular challenges. This review covers the current drug discovery pipeline, including both small molecule and biologic therapies, and highlights the challenges associated with in vitro and in vivo models of C. difficile infection for drug screening and lead optimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angie
M. Jarrad
- The
Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University
of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Tomislav Karoli
- The
Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University
of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Mark A. T. Blaskovich
- The
Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University
of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Dena Lyras
- School
of Biomedical Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Matthew A. Cooper
- The
Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University
of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
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12
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Navarrete-Vázquez G, Chávez-Silva F, Colín-Lozano B, Estrada-Soto S, Hidalgo-Figueroa S, Guerrero-Álvarez J, Méndez ST, Reyes-Vivas H, Oria-Hernández J, Canul-Canché J, Ortiz-Andrade R, Moo-Puc R. Synthesis of nitro(benzo)thiazole acetamides and in vitro antiprotozoal effect against amitochondriate parasites Giardia intestinalis and Trichomonas vaginalis. Bioorg Med Chem 2015; 23:2204-10. [PMID: 25801157 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2015.02.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2015] [Revised: 02/17/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
We synthesized four 5-nitrothiazole (1-4) and four 6-nitrobenzothiazole acetamides (5-8) using an easy two step synthetic route. All compounds were tested in vitro against amitochondriate parasites Giardia intestinalis and Trichomonas vaginalis, showing excellent antiprotozoal effects. IC₅₀'s of the most potent compounds range from nanomolar to low micromolar order, being more active than their drugs of choice. Compound 1 (IC₅₀=122 nM), was 44-times more active than Metronidazole, and 10-fold more effective than Nitazoxanide against G. intestinalis and showed good trichomonicidal activity (IC₅₀=2.24 μM). This compound did not display in vitro cytotoxicity against VERO cells. The in vitro inhibitory effect of compounds 1-8 and Nitazoxanide against G. intestinalis fructose-1,6-biphosphate aldolase (GiFBPA) was evaluated as potential drug target, showing a clear inhibitory effect over the enzyme activity. Molecular docking of compounds 1, 4 and Nitazoxanide into the ligand binding pocket of GiFBPA, revealed contacts with the active site residues of the enzyme. Ligand efficiency metrics of 1 revealed optimal combinations of physicochemical and antiprotozoal properties, better than Nitazoxanide.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Navarrete-Vázquez
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62209, Mexico.
| | - Fabiola Chávez-Silva
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62209, Mexico
| | - Blanca Colín-Lozano
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62209, Mexico
| | - Samuel Estrada-Soto
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62209, Mexico
| | - Sergio Hidalgo-Figueroa
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62209, Mexico; Laboratorio de Farmacología, Depto. Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, 09340 México, D.F., Mexico
| | - Jorge Guerrero-Álvarez
- Centro de Investigaciones Químicas, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62209, Mexico
| | - Sara T Méndez
- Laboratorio de Bioquímica-Genética, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Secretaría de Salud, 04530 México, D.F., Mexico
| | - Horacio Reyes-Vivas
- Laboratorio de Bioquímica-Genética, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Secretaría de Salud, 04530 México, D.F., Mexico
| | - Jesús Oria-Hernández
- Laboratorio de Bioquímica-Genética, Instituto Nacional de Pediatría, Secretaría de Salud, 04530 México, D.F., Mexico
| | | | - Rolffy Ortiz-Andrade
- Facultad de Química, Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, Mérida, Yucatán 97150, Mexico
| | - Rosa Moo-Puc
- Unidad de Investigación Médica Yucatán, IMSS Mérida, Yucatán 97000, Mexico
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13
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Preclinical studies of amixicile, a systemic therapeutic developed for treatment of Clostridium difficile infections that also shows efficacy against Helicobacter pylori. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 58:4703-12. [PMID: 24890599 DOI: 10.1128/aac.03112-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Amixicile shows efficacy in the treatment of Clostridium difficile infections (CDI) in a mouse model, with no recurrence of CDI. Since amixicile selectively inhibits the action of a B vitamin (thiamine pyrophosphate) cofactor of pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR), it may both escape mutation-based drug resistance and spare beneficial probiotic gut bacteria that do not express this enzyme. Amixicile is a water-soluble derivative of nitazoxanide (NTZ), an antiparasitic therapeutic that also shows efficacy against CDI in humans. In comparative studies, amixicile showed no toxicity to hepatocytes at 200 μM (NTZ was toxic above 10 μM); was not metabolized by human, dog, or rat liver microsomes; showed equivalence or superiority to NTZ in cytochrome P450 assays; and did not activate efflux pumps (breast cancer resistance protein, P glycoprotein). A maximum dose (300 mg/kg) of amixicile given by the oral or intraperitoneal route was well tolerated by mice and rats. Plasma exposure (rats) based on the area under the plasma concentration-time curve was 79.3 h · μg/ml (30 mg/kg dose) to 328 h · μg/ml (100 mg/kg dose), the maximum concentration of the drug in serum was 20 μg/ml, the time to the maximum concentration of the drug in serum was 0.5 to 1 h, and the half-life was 5.6 h. Amixicile did not concentrate in mouse feces or adversely affect gut populations of Bacteroides species, Firmicutes, segmented filamentous bacteria, or Lactobacillus species. Systemic bioavailability was demonstrated through eradication of Helicobacter pylori in a mouse infection model. In summary, the efficacy of amixicile in treating CDI and other infections, together with low toxicity, an absence of mutation-based drug resistance, and excellent drug metabolism and pharmacokinetic metrics, suggests a potential for broad application in the treatment of infections caused by PFOR-expressing microbial pathogens in addition to CDI.
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Tsutsumi LS, Owusu YB, Hurdle JG, Sun D. Progress in the discovery of treatments for C. difficile infection: A clinical and medicinal chemistry review. Curr Top Med Chem 2014; 14:152-75. [PMID: 24236721 PMCID: PMC3921470 DOI: 10.2174/1568026613666131113154753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2013] [Revised: 09/06/2013] [Accepted: 09/15/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Clostridium difficile is an anaerobic, Gram-positive pathogen that causes C. difficile infection, which results in significant morbidity and mortality. The incidence of C. difficile infection in developed countries has become increasingly high due to the emergence of newer epidemic strains, a growing elderly population, extensive use of broad spectrum antibiotics, and limited therapies for this diarrheal disease. Because treatment options currently available for C. difficile infection have some drawbacks, including cost, promotion of resistance, and selectivity problems, new agents are urgently needed to address these challenges. This review article focuses on two parts: the first part summarizes current clinical treatment strategies and agents under clinical development for C. difficile infection; the second part reviews newly reported anti-difficile agents that have been evaluated or reevaluated in the last five years and are in the early stages of drug discovery and development. Antibiotics are divided into natural product inspired and synthetic small molecule compounds that may have the potential to be more efficacious than currently approved treatments. This includes potency, selectivity, reduced cytotoxicity, and novel modes of action to prevent resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Dianqing Sun
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, The Daniel K. Inouye College of Pharmacy, University of Hawai'i at Hilo, 34 Rainbow Drive, Hilo, HI 96720, USA.
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15
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Liu XW, Zhang H, Yang YJ, Li JY, Zhang JY. N-(5-Nitro-1,3-thia-zol-2-yl)-4-(tri-fluoro-meth-yl)benzamide. Acta Crystallogr Sect E Struct Rep Online 2013; 69:o943. [PMID: 23795106 PMCID: PMC3685087 DOI: 10.1107/s1600536813011264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2013] [Accepted: 04/25/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
There are two independent and conformationally dissimilar mol-ecules (A and B) in the asymmetric unit of the title compound, C11H6F3N3O3S; the dihedral angles between the benzene and thia-zole rings are 33.8 (2)° in A and 59.7 (2)° in B. The similarity of the C-N bond lengths in the amide group [1.379 (5) and 1.358 (5) Å for A, and 1.365 (5) and 1.363 (5) Å for B] indicates the presence of conjugation between the two rings. In the crystal, mol-ecules are linked by N-H⋯N hydrogen bonds, forming chains extending along [010]; weak N-H⋯Oamide inter-actions are also present in the structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi-Wang Liu
- Key Laboratory of New Animal Drug Project, Gansu Province, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmaceutical Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Institute of Animal Science and Veterinary Pharmaceutics of CAAS, Lanzhou 730050, People’s Republic of China
| | - Han Zhang
- Key Laboratory of New Animal Drug Project, Gansu Province, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmaceutical Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Institute of Animal Science and Veterinary Pharmaceutics of CAAS, Lanzhou 730050, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ya-Jun Yang
- Key Laboratory of New Animal Drug Project, Gansu Province, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmaceutical Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Institute of Animal Science and Veterinary Pharmaceutics of CAAS, Lanzhou 730050, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jian-Yong Li
- Key Laboratory of New Animal Drug Project, Gansu Province, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmaceutical Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Institute of Animal Science and Veterinary Pharmaceutics of CAAS, Lanzhou 730050, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ji-Yu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of New Animal Drug Project, Gansu Province, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmaceutical Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Institute of Animal Science and Veterinary Pharmaceutics of CAAS, Lanzhou 730050, People’s Republic of China
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16
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Jeankumar VU, Chandran M, Samala G, Alvala M, Koushik PV, Yogeeswari P, Salina EG, Sriram D. Development of 5-nitrothiazole derivatives: identification of leads against both replicative and latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2012; 22:7414-7. [PMID: 23137434 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.10.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2012] [Revised: 09/25/2012] [Accepted: 10/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Twenty eight 5-nitrothiazole derivatives were synthesized and evaluated for in vitro activities against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), cytotoxicity against HEK 293T. Among the compounds, 5-nitro-N-(5-nitrothiazol-2-yl)furan-2-carboxamide (20) was found to be the most active compound in vitro with MICs of 5.48 μM against log-phase culture of MTB and also non-toxic up to 100 μM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Variam Ullas Jeankumar
- Antitubercular Drug Discovery Laboratory, Department of Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology& Science - Pilani, Hyderabad Campus, Jawahar Nagar, Hyderabad 500 078, India
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17
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Liu XW, Li JY, Zhang H, Yang YJ, Zhang JY. N-(5-Chloro-1,3-thia-zol-2-yl)-2,4-difluoro-benzamide. Acta Crystallogr Sect E Struct Rep Online 2012; 68:o1857. [PMID: 22719622 PMCID: PMC3379424 DOI: 10.1107/s1600536812022477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2012] [Accepted: 05/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The title compound, C(10)H(5)ClF(2)N(2)OS, was obtained by linking an amino heterocycle and a substituted benzoyl chloride. The dihedral angle between the two rings is 41.2 (2)° and the equalization of the amide C-N bond lengths reveals the existence of conjugation between the benzene ring and the thia-zole unit. In the crystal, pairs of N-H⋯N hydrogen bonds link mol-ecules into inversion dimers. Non-classical C-H⋯F and C-H⋯O hydrogen bonds stabilize the crystal structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi-Wang Liu
- Key Laboratory of the New Animal Drug Project, Gansu Province, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Pharmaceutical Development, Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Institute of Animal Science and Veterinary Pharmaceutics of CAAS, Lanzhou 730050, People's Republic of China
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18
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Amixicile, a novel inhibitor of pyruvate: ferredoxin oxidoreductase, shows efficacy against Clostridium difficile in a mouse infection model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2012; 56:4103-11. [PMID: 22585229 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00360-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) is a serious diarrheal disease that often develops following prior antibiotic usage. One of the major problems with current therapies (oral vancomycin and metronidazole) is the high rate of recurrence. Nitazoxanide (NTZ), an inhibitor of pyruvate:ferredoxin oxidoreductase (PFOR) in anaerobic bacteria, parasites, Helicobacter pylori, and Campylobacter jejuni, also shows clinical efficacy against CDI. From a library of ∼250 analogues of NTZ, we identified leads with increased potency for PFOR. MIC screens indicated in vitro activity in the 0.05- to 2-μg/ml range against C. difficile. To improve solubility, we replaced the 2-acetoxy group with propylamine, producing amixicile, a soluble (10 mg/ml), nontoxic (cell-based assay) lead that produced no adverse effects in mice by oral or intraperitoneal (i.p.) routes at 200 mg/kg of body weight/day. In initial efficacy testing in mice treated (20 mg/kg/day, 5 days each) 1 day after receiving a lethal inoculum of C. difficile, amixicile showed slightly less protection than did vancomycin by day 5. However, in an optimized CDI model, amixicile showed equivalence to vancomycin and fidaxomicin at day 5 and there was significantly greater survival produced by amixicile than by the other drugs on day 12. All three drugs were comparable by measures of weight loss/gain and severity of disease. Recurrence of CDI was common for mice treated with vancomycin or fidaxomicin but not for mice receiving amixicile or NTZ. These results suggest that gut repopulation with beneficial (non-PFOR) bacteria, considered essential for protection against CDI, rebounds much sooner with amixicile therapy than with vancomycin or fidaxomicin. If the mouse model is indeed predictive of human CDI disease, then amixicile, a novel PFOR inhibitor, appears to be a very promising new candidate for treatment of CDI.
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Nitazoxanide stimulates autophagy and inhibits mTORC1 signaling and intracellular proliferation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. PLoS Pathog 2012; 8:e1002691. [PMID: 22589723 PMCID: PMC3349752 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2011] [Accepted: 03/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection, is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in the world today. M. tuberculosis hijacks the phagosome-lysosome trafficking pathway to escape clearance from infected macrophages. There is increasing evidence that manipulation of autophagy, a regulated catabolic trafficking pathway, can enhance killing of M. tuberculosis. Therefore, pharmacological agents that induce autophagy could be important in combating tuberculosis. We report that the antiprotozoal drug nitazoxanide and its active metabolite tizoxanide strongly stimulate autophagy and inhibit signaling by mTORC1, a major negative regulator of autophagy. Analysis of 16 nitazoxanide analogues reveals similar strict structural requirements for activity in autophagosome induction, EGFP-LC3 processing and mTORC1 inhibition. Nitazoxanide can inhibit M. tuberculosis proliferation in vitro. Here we show that it inhibits M. tuberculosis proliferation more potently in infected human THP-1 cells and peripheral monocytes. We identify the human quinone oxidoreductase NQO1 as a nitazoxanide target and propose, based on experiments with cells expressing NQO1 or not, that NQO1 inhibition is partly responsible for mTORC1 inhibition and enhanced autophagy. The dual action of nitazoxanide on both the bacterium and the host cell response to infection may lead to improved tuberculosis treatment. Tuberculosis is responsible for approximately 2 million deaths worldwide each year. Current treatment regimens require administration of multiple drugs over several months and resistance to these drugs is on the rise. Mycobacterium tuberculosis, the causative agent of the disease, can proliferate within host cells. It has been recently observed that autophagy (cellular self-eating) can kill intracellular M. tuberculosis. We report that the antiprotozoal drug nitazoxanide and its metabolite tizoxanide induce autophagy, inhibit signaling by mTORC1, a major negative regulator of autophagy, and prevent M. tuberculosis proliferation in infected macrophages. We show that nitazoxanide exerts at least some of its pharmacological effects by targeting the quinone reductase NQO1. Our results uncover a novel mechanism of action for the drug nitazoxanide, and show that pharmacological modulation of autophagy can suppress intracellular M. tuberculosis proliferation.
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Navarrete-Vazquez G, Chávez-Silva F, Argotte-Ramos R, Rodríguez-Gutiérrez MDC, Chan-Bacab MJ, Cedillo-Rivera R, Moo-Puc R, Hernández-Nuñez E. Synthesis of benzologues of Nitazoxanide and Tizoxanide: a comparative study of their in vitro broad-spectrum antiprotozoal activity. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2011; 21:3168-71. [PMID: 21397502 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2011.02.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2011] [Revised: 02/17/2011] [Accepted: 02/22/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
We have synthesized two new benzologues of Nitazoxanide (NIT) and Tizoxanide (TIZ), using a short synthetic route. Both compounds were tested in vitro against six protozoa (Giardia intestinalis, Trichomonas vaginalis, Entamoeba histolytica, Plasmodium berghei, Leishmania mexicana and Trypanosoma cruzi). Compound 1 (benzologue of NIT) showed broad antiprotozoal effect against all parasites tested, showing IC(50)'s<5 μM. This compound was five-times more active than NIT, and 18-times more potent than metronidazole against G. intestinalis. It was 10-times more active than pentamidine against L. mexicana, and it was sevenfold more potent than benznidazole versus T. cruzi. This compound could be considered as a new broad spectrum antiprotozoal agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Navarrete-Vazquez
- Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62209, Mexico.
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