Anorexia/cachexia-related quality of life for children with cancer

The myokine Fibcd1 is an endogenous determinant of myofiber size and mitigates cancer-induced myofiber atrophy

Decline in skeletal muscle cell size (myofiber atrophy) is a key feature of cancer-induced wasting (cachexia). In particular, atrophy of the diaphragm, the major muscle responsible for breathing, is an important determinant of cancer-associated mortality. However, therapeutic options are limited. Here, we have used Drosophila transgenic screening to identify muscle-secreted factors (myokines) that act as paracrine regulators of myofiber growth. Subsequent testing in mouse myotubes revealed that mouse Fibcd1 is an evolutionary-conserved myokine that preserves myofiber size via ERK signaling. Local administration of recombinant Fibcd1 (rFibcd1) ameliorates cachexia-induced myofiber atrophy in the diaphragm of mice bearing patient-derived melanoma xenografts and LLC carcinomas. Moreover, rFibcd1 impedes cachexia-associated transcriptional changes in the diaphragm. Fibcd1-induced signaling appears to be muscle selective because rFibcd1 increases ERK activity in myotubes but not in several cancer cell lines tested. We propose that rFibcd1 may help reinstate myofiber size in the diaphragm of patients with cancer cachexia.

Generation and Validation of the PROMIS Itch Questionnaire - Child to Measure the Impact of Itch on Life Quality

Itch compromises quality of life, but most itch assessments focus only on itch intensity. We aimed to develop and validate a comprehensive PROMIS (Patient Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System®) pediatric measure for itch symptoms and itch impact, defined as the effect specifically of itch on physical, mental, and social health, all of which can affect life quality. After literature review, concept elicitation and cognitive interviews with parents and children with itch, and repeated content-expert review, an item pool was generated and refined. The pool was calibrated with data from 499 pruritic children using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, item response theory, and item fit analysis. The resultant 45-item bank, PROMIS Itch Questionnaire - Child (PIQ-C), showed good convergent and discriminant validity in 181 children 8-17 years of age, discriminating children with different levels of severity, and was responsive to change. Strong correlations (rho>.60) were observed with pain and sleep measures, and moderate correlations with other pediatric PROMIS measures. PIQ-C comprehensively measures itch intensity and burden, providing an itch-specific alternative for assessing life quality. The independent calibration of each item/question allows for flexibility in generating short-forms or computerized adaptive testing for efficient use in research and office practice.

Using the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) to measure symptom burden reported by patients with brain tumors

BACKGROUND

Children with brain tumors can experience symptom burden throughout their disease continuum. The aim of the study was to evaluate symptom burden reported by children with brain tumors and factors that potentially were associated with their symptoms.

METHODS

Data from 199 children with brain tumors aged 7-22 (mean age = 14 years; 52% males; 76% white) were analyzed. Symptom burden was assessed using the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) via computerized adaptive testing (CAT)-anxiety, depression, fatigue, mobility, upper extremity function, peer relationship, and cognition. Patients and parents completed Symptom Distress Scales (SDS). Test statistics and ANOVA were used to evaluate relationships between PROMIS measures and potentially influential variables.

RESULTS

Significant results (P < 0.01) showing impact of symptom burden included: PROMIS measures correlated with SDSs reported by patients and parents on all comparisons. Fatigue, mobility, and upper extremity function were associated with Karnofsky functional performance status, number of treatment modalities (0-3), and time since last treatment (≤1 year, >1 year). Fatigue and cognition were associated with educational program (regular classroom without an individualized education plan vs those that had an individualized education plan); mobility and upper extremity function were associated with time since last radiation. Mobility, upper extremity function, and anxiety were associated with time since last chemotherapy.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant associations were found between PROMIS and SDS as well as clinical and demographic characteristics. Brief-yet-precise PROMIS CATs can be used to systematically assess symptom burden experienced by children with brain tumors.

Exploring Physical Self-Perceptions Among Survivors of Adolescent and Young Adult Cancer

This study explored the factor structure of four subscales from the Physical Self-Description Questionnaire-Short Form (PSDQ-S). Associations between subscales and personal and medical factors were also examined. The analytic sample consisted of 89 survivors of adolescent and young adult cancer (M_{age at time of study} = 32.96 ± 4.37 years; M_{age at diagnosis} = 31.16 ± 4.84 years; 75.3% female). Confirmatory factor analysis suggested a reasonable fit to the data, indicating that the PSDQ-S subscales examined could be used in future investigations with this population [χ²(38) = 46.9, p = 0.15; Root Mean Square Error of Approximation = 0.05, 90% confidence interval = 0-0.10; Comparative Fit Index = 0.97; Standardized Root Mean Square of the Residuals = 0.07]. Multiple linear regressions showed that personal and medical factors accounted for a significant amount of variance in the body fat subscale, with female sex and higher body mass index being significantly associated with lower positive perceptions about the amount of one's body fat. More research examining the factor structure of the PSDQ-S subscales is warranted, and future investigations exploring personal, medical, and modifiable factors associated with physical self-perceptions should be conducted.

Child and adolescent self-report symptom measurement in pediatric oncology research: a systematic literature review

OBJECTIVE

Previous work in pediatric oncology has found that clinicians and parents tend to under-report the frequency and severity of treatment-related symptoms compared to child self-report. As such, there is a need to identify high-quality self-report instruments to be used in pediatric oncology research studies. This study's objective was to conduct a systematic literature review of existing English language instruments used to measure self-reported symptoms in children and adolescents undergoing cancer treatment.

METHODS

A comprehensive literature search was conducted in MEDLINE/PubMed, EMBASE, CINAHL, and PsycINFO to identify relevant articles published through November 10, 2016. Using pre-specified inclusion/exclusion criteria, six trained reviewers carefully screened abstracts and full-text articles for eligibility.

RESULTS

There were 7738 non-duplicate articles identified in the literature search. Forty articles met our eligibility criteria, and within these articles, there were 38 self-report English symptom instruments. Most studies evaluated only cross-sectional psychometric properties, such as reliability or validity. Ten studies assessed an instrument's responsiveness or ability to detect changes in symptoms over time. Eight instruments met our criteria for use in future longitudinal pediatric oncology studies.

CONCLUSIONS

This systematic review aids pediatric oncology researchers in identifying and selecting appropriate symptom measures with strong psychometric evidence for their studies. Enhancing the child's voice in pediatric oncology research studies allows us to better understand the impact of cancer and its treatment on the lives of children.

Computerized Adaptive Testing in Pediatric Brain Tumor Clinics

CONTEXT

Monitoring of health-related quality of life and symptoms of patients with brain tumors is needed yet not always feasible. This is partially due to lack of brief-yet-precise assessments with minimal administration burden that are easily incorporated into clinics. Dynamic computerized adaptive testing (CAT) or static fixed-length short forms, derived from psychometrically sound item banks, are designed to fill this void.

OBJECTIVE

This study evaluated the comparability of scores obtained from CATs and short forms.

METHODS

Patients (ages 7-22 years) were recruited from brain tumor clinics and completed Patient-Reported Outcome Measurement Information System CATs and short forms (Fatigue, Mobility, Upper Extremity, Depressive Symptoms, Anxiety, and Peer Relationships). Pearson correlations, paired t-tests, and Cohen's d were used to evaluate the relationship, significant differences, and the magnitude of the difference between these two scores, respectively.

RESULTS

Data from 161 patients with brain tumors were analyzed. Patients completed each CAT within 2 minutes. Scores obtained from CATs and short forms were highly correlated (r = 0.95-0.98). Significantly different CAT vs. short-form scores were found on 4 (of 6) domains yet with negligible effect sizes (|d| < 0.09). These relationships varied across patients with different levels of reported symptoms, with the strongest association at the worst or best symptom scores.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated the comparability of scores from CATs and short forms. Yet the agreement between these two varied across degrees of symptom severity which was a result of the ceiling effects of static short forms. We recommend CATs to enable individualized assessment for longitudinal monitoring.

Systematic review of the health-related quality of life issues facing adolescents and young adults with cancer

PURPOSE

For adolescents and young adults (AYAs), the impact of a cancer diagnosis and subsequent treatment is likely to be distinct from other age groups given the unique and complex psychosocial challenges of this developmental phase. In this review of the literature, we report the health-related quality of life (HRQoL) issues experienced by AYAs diagnosed with cancer and undergoing treatment.

METHODS

MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, PsychINFO and the Cochrane Library Databases were searched for publications reporting HRQoL of AYAs. Issues generated from interviews with AYAs or from responses to patient reported outcome measures (PROMs) were extracted.

RESULTS

166 papers were reviewed in full and comprised 72 papers covering 69 primary studies, 49 measurement development or evaluation papers and 45 reviews. Of the 69 studies reviewed, 11 (16%) used interviews to elicit AYAs' descriptions of HRQoL issues. The majority of the PROMs used in the studies represent adaptations of paediatric or adult measures. HRQoL issues were organised into the following categories: physical, cognitive, restricted activities, relationships with others, fertility, emotions, body image and spirituality/outlook on life.

CONCLUSION

The HRQoL issues presented within this review are likely to be informative to health care professionals and AYAs. The extensive list of issues suggests that the impact of a cancer diagnosis and treatment during adolescence and young adulthood is widespread and reflects the complexities of this developmental phase.

Taste and smell dysfunction in childhood cancer survivors

INTRODUCTION

Reduced or altered taste and smell function may occur as a side-effect of cancer therapy. This can lead to altered nutrient and energy intake. Some studies have suggested that taste and smell dysfunction can persist many years after treatment completion but this has not been previously assessed in survivors of childhood cancer. The aim of this study is to determine if taste and smell dysfunction is present in childhood cancer survivors (CCS). Food preference and Quality of Life was also assessed.

METHODS

Fifty-one child cancer survivors (mean age: 19.69±7.09years), more than five years since treatment completion, (mean: 12.4years) were recruited from the long term follow-up clinics at two Sydney-based children's hospitals. Taste function was assessed using a 25 sample taste identification test comprising five concentrations each of sweet, salty, sour and bitter tastes and water. Smell function was assessed by determining the ability of participants to identify 16 common odorants. The participants' Quality of Life was assessed using the Functional Assessment of Anorexia Cachexia scale and food preferences were assessed using a 94-item food liking tool.

RESULTS

Taste dysfunction was found in 27.5% of participants (n=14), and smell dysfunction in 3.9% (n=2) of participants. The prevalence of taste dysfunction was higher than that seen in the non-cancer population. The child cancer survivors' appeared to "like" the less healthy food groups such as flavoured beverages, takeaway and snacks over healthier food groups such as vegetables and salad. No correlation was found between those with a taste dysfunction and their food "likes".

CONCLUSION

A high level of taste dysfunction was found in CCS though there did not appear to be an issue with smell dysfunction. Further work is also needed to assess whether a taste dysfunction do play a role in the dietary habits of CCS.

Considering quality of life for children with cancer: a systematic review of patient-reported outcome measures and the development of a conceptual model

OBJECTIVES

An appraisal of pediatric cancer-specific quality-of-life (QOL) instruments revealed a lack of clarity about what constitutes QOL in this population. This study addresses this concern by identifying the concepts that underpin the construct of QOL as determined by a content analysis of all patient-reported outcome (PRO) instruments used in childhood cancer research.

METHODS

A systematic review was performed of key databases (i.e., MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsychINFO) to identify studies of QOL in children with cancer. A content analysis process was used to code and categorize all items from generic and cancer-specified PRO instruments. Our objective was to provide clarification regarding the conceptual underpinnings of these instruments, as well as to help inform the development of theory and contribute to building a conceptual framework of QOL for children with cancer.

RESULTS

A total of 6,013 English language articles were screened, identifying 148 studies. Ten generic and ten cancer-specific PRO instruments provided 957 items. Content analysis led to the identification of four major domains of QOL (physical, psychological, social, and general health), with 11 subdomains covering 98 different concepts. While all instruments reflected items relating to the broader domains of QOL, there was substantial heterogeneity in terms of the content and variability in the distribution of items.

CONCLUSIONS

This systematic review and the proposed model represent a useful starting point in the critical appraisal of the conceptual underpinnings of PRO instruments used in pediatric oncology and contribute to the need to place such tools under a critical, yet reflective and analytical lens.

Nutritional status and dietary intake of children with acute leukaemia during induction or consolidation chemotherapy

BACKGROUND

The assessment of nutritional status among paediatric patients is important for the planning and execution of nutritional strategies that strive to optimise the quality of life and growth among sick children. The present study aimed to evaluate the nutritional status and dietary intake among children with acute leukaemia.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study included 53 paediatric patients aged 3-12 years old, who were diagnosed with either acute lymphoblastic leukaemia or acute myelogenous leukaemia and were undergoing chemotherapy treatments (induction or consolidation phase). Patients were matched for sex, age (±6 months) and ethnicity with healthy children as controls. Weight, height, body mass index, waist circumference, mid-upper arm circumference, triceps skinfold thickness, mid-upper arm muscle area and fat area were determined. Dietary intake was assessed using 3-day food records.

RESULTS

Anthropometric variables were generally higher among patients compared to controls, although the differences were not statistically significant (P > 0.05). The prevalence of overnutrition among patients according to body mass index-for-age, waist circumference-for-age, mid-upper arm circumference-for-age and triceps skinfold-for-age were 24.5%, 29.1%, 17.0% and 30.2%, respectively. Mean energy [5732 ± 1958 kJ (1370 ± 468 kcal) versus 6945 ± 1970 kJ (1660 ± 471 kcal), P < 0.01], protein (50.0 ± 19.7 g versus 62.3 ± 22.3 g, P < 0.01) and fat (43.6 ± 18.9 g versus 58.3 ± 16.7, P < 0.001) intakes of patients were significantly lower than controls.

CONCLUSIONS

The prevalence of being overweight and obesity in children with acute leukaemia was higher despite lower energy intake compared to controls. Studies assessing physical activity, the complex interaction and the effects of treatment drugs are warranted to better manage malnutrition among paediatric patients.

Cancer cachexia--pathophysiology and management

About half of all cancer patients show a syndrome of cachexia, characterized by anorexia and loss of adipose tissue and skeletal muscle mass. Cachexia can have a profound impact on quality of life, symptom burden, and a patient's sense of dignity. It is a very serious complication, as weight loss during cancer treatment is associated with more chemotherapy-related side effects, fewer completed cycles of chemotherapy, and decreased survival rates. Numerous cytokines have been postulated to play a role in the etiology of cancer cachexia. Cytokines can elicit effects that mimic leptin signaling and suppress orexigenic ghrelin and neuropeptide Y (NPY) signaling, inducing sustained anorexia and cachexia not accompanied by the usual compensatory response. Furthermore, cytokines have been implicated in the induction of cancer-related muscle wasting. Cytokine-induced skeletal muscle wasting is probably a multifactorial process, which involves a protein synthesis inhibition, an increase in protein degradation, or a combination of both. The best treatment of the cachectic syndrome is a multifactorial approach. Many drugs including appetite stimulants, thalidomide, cytokine inhibitors, steroids, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, branched-chain amino acids, eicosapentaenoic acid, and antiserotoninergic drugs have been proposed and used in clinical trials, while others are still under investigation using experimental animals. There is a growing awareness of the positive impact of supportive care measures and development of promising novel pharmaceutical agents for cachexia. While there has been great progress in understanding the underlying biological mechanisms of cachexia, health care providers must also recognize the psychosocial and biomedical impact cachexia can have.

Nutritional status among pediatric cancer patients: a comparison between hematological malignancies and solid tumors

PURPOSE

This study aimed to compare the nutritional status of pediatric patients with hematological malignancies and solid tumors.

DESIGN AND METHODS

A total of 74 pediatric cancer patients were assessed for anthropometric status, biochemical profiles, and dietary intake.

RESULTS

The prevalence of undernutrition was higher among patients with solid tumors as reflected in their lower dietary intakes of energy and nutrients compared with patients with hematological malignancies.

PRACTICE IMPLICATION

Adequate dietary intake is important for pediatric cancer patients, but nurses need to pay more attention to the diets of patients with solid tumors as compared with those with hematological malignancies.

Development of a parent-report cognitive function item bank using item response theory and exploration of its clinical utility in computerized adaptive testing

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study is to report the reliability, validity, and clinical utility of a parent-report perceived cognitive function (pedsPCF) item bank.

METHODS

From the U.S. general population, 1,409 parents of children aged 7-17 years completed 45 pedsPCF items. Their psychometric properties were evaluated using Item Response Theory (IRT) approaches. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves and discriminant function analysis were used to predict clinical problems on child behavior checklist (CBCL) scales. A computerized adaptive testing (CAT) simulation was used to evaluate clinical utility.

RESULTS

The final 43-item pedsPCF item bank demonstrates no item bias, has acceptable IRT parameters, and provides good prediction of related clinical problems. CAT simulation resulted in correlations of 0.98 between CAT and the full-length pedsPCF.

CONCLUSIONS

The pedsPCF has sound psychometric properties, U.S. general population norms, and a brief-yet-precise CAT version is available. Future work will evaluate pedsPCF in other clinical populations in which cognitive function is important.

Nutritional Assessment of Children With Cancer

Regardless of which parts of the world they live in, most children will develop and grow at a similar rate if proper nutrition is ensured. Children from developing countries are at risk for primary malnutrition. Children undergoing anticancer therapy are at higher risk for secondary malnutrition, including obesity and growth retardation. Periodic nutritional assessments are important for planning effective dietary interventions for such children. In this review, we describe malnutrition as it occurs in children with cancer and various ways of assessing the nutritional status of these children, depending on the availability of resources in their local hospitals. Objective and subjective data should be used to complete the nutritional assessment. We discuss screening methods, including the use of subjective global assessment. Different parts of nutritional assessment include medical history; physical examination; biochemical and hematological data, such as visceral proteins, blood glucose levels, and lipid profiles, hemoglobin and hematocrit, and the lymphocyte count; anthropometric measurements; and food and nutrition history. We review medical tests and procedures to determine nutritional status, including nitrogen balance, delayed cutaneous hypersensitivity, prognostic nutritional index, creatinine height index, maldigestion and malabsorption tests, indirect calorimetry, and dual energy X ray absorptiometry (DXA scan). Evaluation and interpretation of data and estimation of nutritional risk are discussed, including proper techniques and use of anthropometric measures, selection and use of growth charts, calculation of caloric and protein needs, and the percentage of calories ingested. These methods will enable local health care providers to accurately assess the nutritional status of children with cancer, identify children at risk, and plan adequate nutritional interventions.

Classical test theory and item response theory/Rasch model to assess differences between patient-reported fatigue using 7-day and 4-week recall periods

OBJECTIVE

This study compared self-reported fatigue between 7-day and 4-week time frames and explored factors that affect patients' responses.

STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING

Two hundred and sixteen cancer patients completed either 7-day or 4-week version of the Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy-Fatigue (FACIT-F). Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel statistics and Cochran-Armitage trend tests were used to assess the association between time frame and item scores. Information function curves at both item and scale levels were depicted to evaluate the precision along the fatigue continuum. Differential item functioning (DIF) was used to examine the stability of the psychometric properties between time frames.

RESULTS

Time frame did not influence patients' item responses. Examination of information function curves at item level did not clearly favor either time frame. At the scale level, the 7-day time frame was slightly more precise overall than the 4-week time frame. No item demonstrated DIF between time frames. Neither gender nor fatigue severity had an impact on above results.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests 7-day and 4-week time frame are equally appropriate in measuring fatigue, preference might be given to the more informative 7-day time frame. However, substantive considerations regarding the appropriate time frame should outweigh statistical ones.

Hormonal regulators of appetite

Obesity is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. There has been a significant worsening of the obesity epidemic mainly due to alterations in dietary intake and energy expenditure. Alternatively, cachexia, or pathologic weight loss, is a significant problem for individuals with chronic disease. Despite their obvious differences, both processes involve hormones that regulate appetite. These hormones act on specific centers in the brain that affect the sensations of hunger and satiety. Mutations in these hormones or their receptors can cause substantial pathology leading to obesity or anorexia. Identification of individuals with specific genetic mutations may ultimately lead to more appropriate therapies targeted at the underlying disease process. Thus far, these hormones have mainly been studied in adults and animal models. This article is aimed at reviewing the hormones involved in hunger and satiety, with a focus on pediatrics.

Common gastrointestinal symptoms in pediatric palliative care: nausea, vomiting, constipation, anorexia, cachexia

Gastrointestinal symptoms are suffered commonly by children at the end of life. Diagnosis and management of these common symptoms include careful history and physical examination to assess for possible causes; treatment - pharmacologic and nonpharmacologic; and a discussion with patients and families of care goals. Aggressive management of these symptoms is essential to improving the quality of life for these children.

Measuring fatigue for children with cancer: development and validation of the pediatric Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy-Fatigue (pedsFACIT-F)

Fatigue is a major concern for cancer patients of all ages. The lack of an appropriate assessment tool has impeded our understanding of its prevalence and significance, specifically in the pediatric cancer population. This paper documents the reliability and validity of the pediatric Functional Assessment of Chronic Illness Therapy-Fatigue (pedsFACIT-F) in a comprehensive manner. The 11-item PedsFACIT-F was developed via literature review, feedback from patient/parent/clinician, and a face-to-face consensus meeting. Its reliability and validity were examined on the basis of data from 159 pediatric patients with cancer via classical test theory and Rasch analysis. Results showed that the pedsFACIT-F demonstrated good internal consistency (Cronbach alpha), acceptable item-total correlations, and met the unidimensionality assumption set by confirmatory factor analysis. All items had acceptable fit statistics in the Rasch analysis and demonstrated stable measurement properties by age, sex, and cancer type. Scores on the pedsFACIT-F significantly discriminated between patients with and without anemia and among patients with different functional status; clinically relevant minimally important differences were estimated accordingly. The pedsFACIT-F was significantly correlated to the PedsQL Multidimensional Fatigue Scale. In conclusion, the pedsFACIT-F demonstrates satisfactory reliability and validity and can be a useful tool in clinical trials and other research.

The future of outcomes measurement: item banking, tailored short-forms, and computerized adaptive assessment

The use of item banks and computerized adaptive testing (CAT) begins with clear definitions of important outcomes, and references those definitions to specific questions gathered into large and well-studied pools, or "banks" of items. Items can be selected from the bank to form customized short scales, or can be administered in a sequence and length determined by a computer programmed for precision and clinical relevance. Although far from perfect, such item banks can form a common definition and understanding of human symptoms and functional problems such as fatigue, pain, depression, mobility, social function, sensory function, and many other health concepts that we can only measure by asking people directly. The support of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), as witnessed by its cooperative agreement with measurement experts through the NIH Roadmap Initiative known as PROMIS (www.nihpromis.org), is a big step in that direction. Our approach to item banking and CAT is practical; as focused on application as it is on science or theory. From a practical perspective, we frequently must decide whether to re-write and retest an item, add more items to fill gaps (often at the ceiling of the measure), re-test a bank after some modifications, or split up a bank into units that are more unidimensional, yet less clinically relevant or complete. These decisions are not easy, and yet they are rarely unforgiving. We encourage people to build practical tools that are capable of producing multiple short form measures and CAT administrations from common banks, and to further our understanding of these banks with various clinical populations and ages, so that with time the scores that emerge from these many activities begin to have not only a common metric and range, but a shared meaning and understanding across users. In this paper, we provide an overview of item banking and CAT, discuss our approach to item banking and its byproducts, describe testing options, discuss an example of CAT for fatigue, and discuss models for long term sustainability of an entity such as PROMIS. Some barriers to success include limitations in the methods themselves, controversies and disagreements across approaches, and end-user reluctance to move away from the familiar.