Physical activity and survival of postmenopausal, hormone receptor-positive breast cancer patients: results of the Tamoxifen Exemestane Adjuvant Multicenter Lifestyle study

Dose/Exposure Relationship of Exercise and Distant Recurrence in Primary Breast Cancer

PURPOSE

Postdiagnosis exercise is associated with lower breast cancer (BC) mortality but its link with risk of recurrence is less clear. We investigated the impact and dose-response relationship of exercise and recurrence in patients with primary BC.

METHODS

Multicenter prospective cohort analysis among 10,359 patients with primary BC from 26 centers in France between 2012 and 2018 enrolled in the CANcer TOxicities study, with follow-up through October 2021. Exercise exposure was assessed using the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire-16, quantified in standardized metabolic equivalent of task-hours per week (MET-h/wk). We examined the dose/exposure response of pretreatment exercise on distant recurrence-free interval (DRFI) for all patients and stratified by clinical subtype and menopausal status using inverse probability treatment weighted multivariable Cox models to estimate hazard ratios (HRs).

RESULTS

For the overall cohort, the relationship between exercise and DRFI was nonlinear: increasing exercise ≥ 5 MET-h/wk was associated with an inverse linear reduction in DRFI events up to approximately 25 MET-h/wk; increasing exercise over this threshold did not provide any additional DRFI benefit. Compared with <5 MET-h/wk, the adjusted HR for DRFI was 0.82 (95% CI, 0.61 to 1.00) for ≥ 5 MET-h/wk. Stratification by subtype revealed the hormone receptor-/human epidermal growth factor receptor 2- (HR-/HER2-; HR, 0.59 [95% CI, 0.38 to 0.92]) and HR-/HER2+ (HR, 0.37 [95% CI, 0.14 to 0.96]) subtypes were preferentially responsive to exercise. The benefit of exercise was observed especially in the premenopausal population.

CONCLUSION

Postdiagnosis/pretreatment exercise is associated with lower risk of DRFI events in a nonlinear fashion in primary BC; exercise has different impact on DRFI as a function of subtype and menopausal status.

Lifestyle Factors and Cancer: A Narrative Review

Lifestyle factors and their impact on cancer prevention, prognosis, and survivorship are increasingly recognized in the medical literature. Lifestyle factors are primarily defined here as diet and physical activity. We conducted a narrative review of the primary published data, including randomized controlled trials and prospective studies, on the impact of primary lifestyle factors on oncogenesis and clinical outcomes in the preventative and survivorship setting. First, we discuss the oncogenic mechanisms behind primary lifestyle factors (diet, physical activity and, within these 2, obesity). Then, we discuss the impact of adherence to lifestyle guidelines and dietary patterns on cancer incidence based on primary data. Owing to the plethora of published literature, to summarize the data in a more efficient manner, we describe the role of physical activity on cancer incidence using summative systematic reviews. We end by synthesizing the primary data on lifestyle factors in the survivorship setting and conclude with potential future directions. In brief, the various large-scale studies investigating the role diet and physical activity have reported a beneficial effect on cancer prevention and survivorship. Although the impact of single lifestyle factors on cancer incidence risk reduction is generally supported, holistic approaches to address the potential synergistic impact of multiple lifestyle factors together in concert is limited. Future research to identify the potentially synergistic effects of lifestyle modifications on oncogenesis and clinical outcomes is needed, particularly in cancer subtypes beyond colorectal and breast cancers.

Biased effects of pre-diagnostic physical activity on breast cancer survival: Systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Pre-diagnostic physical activity is reported to improve survival for women with breast cancer. However, studies of pre-diagnostic exposures and cancer survival are susceptible to bias, made clear when applying a target trial framework. We investigated the impact of selection bias, immortal time bias, confounding and bias due to inappropriate adjustment for post-exposure variables in a systematic review and meta-analysis of pre-diagnostic physical activity and survival after breast cancer.

METHODS

Medline, Embase and Emcare were searched from inception to November 2021 for studies examining pre-diagnostic physical activity and overall or breast cancer-specific survival for women with breast cancer. Random-effects meta-analysis was used to estimate pooled hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) comparing highest versus lowest pre-diagnostic physical activity. Subgroup meta-analyses were used to compare HRs of studies with and without different biases. ROBINS-E was used to assess risk of bias.

RESULTS

We included 22 studies. Women with highest versus lowest pre-diagnostic physical activity had higher overall and breast cancer-specific survival across most analyses. The overall risk of bias was high. We observed marked differences in estimated HRs between studies that did and did not adjust for post-exposure variables or have immortal time bias. All studies were at risk of selection bias due to participants becoming eligible for study when they have survived to post-exposure events (e.g., breast cancer diagnosis). Insufficient studies were available to investigate confounding.

CONCLUSION

Biases can substantially change effect estimates. Due to misalignment of treatment assignment (before diagnosis), eligibility (survival to post-exposure events) and start of follow-up, bias is difficult to avoid. It is difficult to lend a causal interpretation to effect estimates from studies of pre-diagnostic physical activity and survival after cancer. Biased effect estimates that are difficult to interpret may be less useful for clinical or public health policy applications.

The Impact of Frailty on Adjuvant Therapies Not Offered to or Declined by Breast Cancer Surgery Patients

INTRODUCTION

The impact of frailty on adjuvant therapies not offered to or declined by elderly breast cancer surgery patients has been understudied.

METHODS

This is a retrospective review of a prospectively managed single-center database including all breast cancer patients >65 years undergoing surgery in 2021. Frailty was determined using an electronic frailty index (eFI) derived from electronic health data. Patients were categorized as Fit (eFI ≤ .10), Pre-frail (.10 < eFI ≤.21), or Frail (eFI > .21). Chart review was performed to collect data on adjuvant therapies not offered or declined. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression were performed.

RESULTS

Of 133 patients, 16.5% were frail, 46.6% were pre-frail, and 36.8% were fit. Demographics were similar among groups except age and comorbidities. Of those with adjuvant therapy indicated (n = 123), 15.4% were not offered at least one indicated therapy. Of those offered therapy, some therapy was declined in 22.7%. Frail patients more often were not offered or declined some therapy (frail: 63.2%, pre-frail 36.2%, fit: 28.2%, P = .03). Frailty was associated with having some therapy not offered or declined on univariate modeling (OR 4.4 95% CI 1.4-13.5, P = .01) but not on multivariate. Being frail was associated with higher odds of readmission at 6 months on multivariate analysis (OR 9.5, 95% CI: 1.7-54.2. P = .01).

CONCLUSION

Over half of frail patients are not offered or decline some adjuvant therapy. The impact of this requires further study. Given their higher odds of readmission, frail patients require close postoperative monitoring to prevent the interruption of adjuvant therapies.

Host-Related Factors in the Interplay among Inflammation, Immunity and Dormancy in Breast Cancer Recurrence and Prognosis: An Overview for Clinicians

A significant proportion of patients treated for early breast cancer develop medium-term and late distant recurrence. The delayed manifestation of metastatic disease is defined as "dormancy". This model describes the aspects of the clinical latency of isolated metastatic cancer cells. Dormancy is regulated by extremely complex interactions between disseminated cancer cells and the microenvironment where they reside, the latter in turn influenced directly by the host. Among these entangled mechanisms, inflammation and immunity may play leading roles. This review is divided into two parts: the first describes the biological underpinnings of cancer dormancy and the role of the immune response, in particular, for breast cancer; the second provides an overview of the host-related factors that may influence systemic inflammation and immune response, subsequently impacting the dynamics of breast cancer dormancy. The aim of this review is to provide physicians and medical oncologists a useful tool to understand the clinical implications of this relevant topic.

Postdiagnosis recreational physical activity and breast cancer prognosis: Global Cancer Update Programme (CUP Global) systematic literature review and meta-analysis

It is important to clarify the associations between modifiable lifestyle factors such as physical activity and breast cancer prognosis to enable the development of evidence-based survivorship recommendations. We performed a systematic review and meta-analyses to summarise the evidence on the relationship between postbreast cancer diagnosis physical activity and mortality, recurrence and second primary cancers. We searched PubMed and Embase through 31st October 2021 and included 20 observational studies and three follow-up observational analyses of patients enrolled in clinical trials. In linear dose-response meta-analysis of the observational studies, each 10-unit increase in metabolic equivalent of task (MET)-h/week higher recreational physical activity was associated with 15% and 14% lower risk of all-cause (95% confidence interval [CI]: 8%-22%, studies = 12, deaths = 3670) and breast cancer-specific mortality (95% CI: 4%-23%, studies = 11, deaths = 1632), respectively. Recreational physical activity was not associated with breast cancer recurrence (HR = 0.97, 95% CI: 0.91-1.05, studies = 6, deaths = 1705). Nonlinear dose-response meta-analyses indicated 48% lower all-cause and 38% lower breast cancer-specific mortality with increasing recreational physical activity up to 20 MET-h/week, but little further reduction in risk at higher levels. Predefined subgroup analyses across strata of body mass index, hormone receptors, adjustment for confounders, number of deaths, menopause and physical activity intensities were consistent in direction and magnitude to the main analyses. Considering the methodological limitations of the included studies, the independent Expert Panel concluded 'limited-suggestive' likelihood of causality for an association between recreational physical activity and lower risk of all-cause and breast cancer-specific mortality.

Physical Activity and Breast Cancer Survival-Epidemiologic Evidence and Potential Biologic Mechanisms

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To review the biologic mechanisms that may be operative between physical activity and survival after breast cancer.

RECENT FINDINGS

Physical activity decreases risk of mortality from breast cancer by up to 40%. Several biologic mechanisms have been hypothesized to explain this association. Previous cohort studies and randomized trials have examined the primary mechanisms that appear to be operative, which involve a decrease in sex hormone levels, insulin resistance, and inflammation. The evidence is still inconsistent and several limitations in the existing literature exist. Understanding the biologic mechanisms involved in the association of physical activity and breast cancer survival will provide more precision to physical activity guidelines for cancer survival. To achieve this objective, future research should include direct measurements of physical activity, sedentary behaviour, and health-related fitness to provide a more comprehensive assessment of these factors and their association with biomarkers and survival after breast cancer.

Effect of Post-diagnosis Physical Activity on Breast Cancer Recurrence: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Breast cancer (BC) recurrence dramatically decreases 5-year survival, which causes a fear of BC recurrence among a majority of BC survivors. Evidence is currently inconsistent on whether post-diagnosis recreational physical activity (rPA) can prevent BC recurrence due to the small number of included studies, as well as methodological heterogeneity among the studies. This systematic review aimed to clarify the association between post-diagnosis rPA and the risk of BC recurrence, by conducting a meta-analysis while controlling for the categories of rPA across the existing studies.

RECENT FINDINGS

Prospective cohort studies were searched, and five studies were eligible for the meta-analysis. Of 10,094 patients with BC, 1561 had recurrence during the follow-up period ranging from 12 to 156 months. The meta-analysis revealed that patients whose post-diagnosis rPA was ≥ 7.5 metabolic equivalents (MET-h/week) had a lower BC risk than patients whose rPA was 0-3 MET-h/week (hazard ratio [HR], 0.65; 95% CI, 0.58-0.73, p < 0.00001, I² = 0%). The review indicated that a post-diagnosis rPA of ≥ 7.5 MET-h/week could reduce the risk of BC recurrence by 35%. Although it is necessary to investigate randomized controlled studies in the future, this result will strengthen strategies for the care and/or treatment of patients after BC and can motivate BC survivors to participate in rPA programs after BC diagnosis.

Physical Activity Before, During, and After Chemotherapy for High-Risk Breast Cancer: Relationships With Survival

BACKGROUND

Although physical activity has been consistently associated with reduced breast cancer mortality, evidence is largely based on data collected at one occasion. We examined how pre- and postdiagnosis physical activity was associated with survival outcomes in high-risk breast cancer patients.

METHODS

Included were 1340 patients enrolled in the Diet, Exercise, Lifestyle and Cancer Prognosis (DELCaP) Study, a prospective study of lifestyle and prognosis ancillary to a SWOG clinical trial (S0221). Activity before diagnosis, during treatment, and at 1- and 2-year intervals after enrollment was collected. Patients were categorized according to the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans as meeting the minimum guidelines (yes/no) and incrementally as inactive, low active, moderately active (meeting the guidelines), or high active.

RESULTS

In joint-exposure analyses, patients meeting the guidelines before and 1 year after diagnosis experienced statistically significant reductions in hazards of recurrence (hazard ratio [HR] = 0.59, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.42 to 0.82) and mortality (HR = 0.51, 95% CI = 0.34-0.77); associations were stronger at 2-year follow-up for recurrence (HR = 0.45, 95% CI = 0.31 to 0.65) and mortality (HR = 0.32, 95% CI = 0.19 to 0.52). In time-dependent analyses, factoring in activity from all time points, we observed striking associations with mortality for low- (HR = 0.41, 95% CI = 0.24 to 0.68), moderate- (HR = 0.42, 95% CI = 0.23 to 0.76), and high-active patients (HR = 0.31, 95% CI = 0.18 to 0.53).

CONCLUSIONS

Meeting the minimum guidelines for physical activity both before diagnosis and after treatment appears to be associated with statistically significantly reduced hazards of recurrence and mortality among breast cancer patients. When considering activity from all time points, including during treatment, lower volumes of regular activity were associated with similar overall survival advantages as meeting and exceeding the guidelines.

Effect of physical activity levels on oncological breast surgery recovery: a prospective cohort study

After breast cancer (BC) surgery, women may experience a physical decline. The effect of physical activity (PA) on the course of recovery after BC surgery has not yet been thoroughly examined. To analyze the impact of physical activity performed by women undergoing breast cancer surgery on measures of function, range of motion, and self-efficacy. A prospective study was carried out in 157 patients who underwent surgery for BC between October 2018 and April 2019, divided into four groups according to the intensity of PA with 6 months follow-up. 50 sedentary patients and 107 active patients were enrolled; the mean age was 52.6. Women who performed physical activity, moderate to vigorous, demonstrated lower function disabilities (QuickDASH 2.22) compared with inactivity or light physical activity (QuickDASH 7.0, p < 0.001), with better shoulder flexion (159.0° vs. 150.7°, p = 0.007) and abduction (159.5° vs. 152.2°, p = 0.008). Higher PA levels, displayed in higher self-efficacy reports (9.5 vs. 8.8, p = 0.002), and return to prior job status (0.005). The PA level does not influence pain at one, three and 6 months postoperatively (p = 0.278, p = 0.304 and p = 0.304 respectively). High PA levels increase the risk of axillary web syndrome (p = 0.041), although, it reduces the incidence of chronic pain (p = 0.007). Women who practice physical activity recover better from BC surgery than sedentary women. The higher the intensity and frequency of training, the better the results. Vigorous activity cause axillary web syndrome, despite, it has a beneficial effect on lowering the rate of chronic pain.

The impact of breast cancer surgery on functional status in older women - A systematic review of the literature

Primary endocrine therapy as treatment of breast cancer is only recommended in older women with limited life expectancy. However, many older women opt for endocrine therapy due to concerns regarding frailty and potential decline in function after surgery. A decline in functional status after surgery is documented in some cancer types, such as colorectal, however, the full impact of breast cancer surgery is less understood. A systematic review was performed to examine the evidence for impact of breast cancer surgery on functional status in older women. PubMed and Embase databases were searched. Studies were eligible if performed within the last 10 years; included patients over the age of 65 years undergoing breast cancer surgery; included stratification of results by age; measured functional status pre-operatively and at least six months following surgery. A total of 11 studies including 12 030 women were appraised. Two studies represented level-II and nine level-IV evidence. Overall, physical activity level was negatively impacted by breast cancer surgery and this was compounded by the extent of surgery. Evidence for impact of breast cancer surgery on quality of life, fatigue and cognition, was conflicting. The possibility of decline in functional status after breast cancer surgery should be discussed in all older women considering surgery. A structured exercise program may improve the negative effects of surgery on physical activity. Further work is required in the areas of quality of life, fatigability and cognition.

Optimal Supportive Care for Patients With Metastatic Breast Cancer According to Their Disease Progression Phase

The clinical progression patterns of metastatic breast cancer (MBC) are heterogeneous; patients experience acute and stable phases at different time points. The acute phase consists of rapid progressive symptomatic changes, whereas in the stable phase, patients have relatively low symptom burden. Therefore, personalized interdisciplinary care is essential. The optimal palliative or supportive care in MBC is to provide comprehensive care that is individually prioritized to the patient's disease status. The purpose of this review is to provide a practical guide for oncologists to understand the priorities for supportive care for patients with MBC in the two phases. We note that for better decision making in patient care, performance status should be broadened to consider not only physical status but also psychosocial needs and cognitive condition. We summarize the clinical importance of physical symptom control, psychosocial support, physical activity, nutrition support, and advance care planning. For optimal care, we present palliative or supportive care checklists according to the disease progression phase, combining the limited evidence with expert input. In the acute phase, close monitoring of the patient's status and symptom management take priority. In the stable phase, the focus can shift to maintenance or improvement of physical strength and emotional condition. Finally, we discuss future directions and unmet needs in providing the best supportive care for patients with MBC.

A Model of an Integrative Approach to Breast Cancer Patients

BACKGROUND

Breast cancer (BC) survivors have physical and psychological needs that require convincing responses by health care providers. The quality of life issue and clinical unmet needs are among the main reasons pushing a number of patients toward "natural" therapies that are often misleading and alternative to mainstream cancer care. Integrative Oncology (IO) tries to respond to many of those needs, by combining lifestyle counseling, body-mind activities, and complementary evidence-informed therapies with anticancer standard treatments.

METHODS

In our model at Fondazione Policlinico Gemelli (FPG), every woman diagnosed with a BC waiting for surgery or candidate to neoadjuvant chemotherapy undergoes a preliminary psycho-oncological distress evaluation and a brief lifestyle interview. Anthropometric measurements, body composition analysis, and individual levels of physical activity are recorded. Patients are given evidence based recommendations about the advisable diet and physical activity in a prehabilitation setting. A physician provides patients with information about integrative care plans to treat symptoms related to the disease or its treatments. Therapeutic approaches include acupuncture, mindfulness-based protocols, qigong, massage therapy, and classes of music/art therapy.

RESULTS

Between September 2018 and February 2020, the Center for Integrative Oncology at FPG has carried out 1249 lifestyle counseling sessions, 1780 acupuncture treatments, 1340 physiotherapy sessions, 3261 psycho-oncological consultations, 218 herbal medicine counseling sessions. Moreover, 90 BC patients completed the mindfulness based stress reduction (MBSR) protocol and 970 patients participated in qigong, art therapy, and music therapy classes.

CONCLUSIONS

Our integrative approach aims to achieve a person-centered medicine by improving symptoms management, adherence to oncological protocols, and eventually overall quality of life.

Physical Activity as an Imperative Support in Breast Cancer Management

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common malignancy and the second cause of cancer-related death among women. It is estimated that 9 in 10 cases of BC are due to non-genetic factors, and approximately 25% to 30% of total breast cancer cases should be preventable only by lifestyle interventions. In this context, physical activity represents an excellent and accessible approach not only for the prevention, but also for being a potential support in the management of breast cancer. The present review will collect the current knowledge of physical activity in the background of breast cancer, exploring its systemic and molecular effects, considering important variables in the training of these women and the evidence regarding the benefits of exercise on breast cancer survival and prognosis. We will also summarize the various effects of physical activity as a co-adjuvant therapy in women receiving different treatments to deal with its adverse effects. Finally, we will reveal the impact of physical activity in the enhancement of quality of life of these patients, to conclude the central role that exercise must occupy in breast cancer management, in an adequate context of a healthy lifestyle.

[Physical activity after breast cancer diagnosis and survival: A systematic review]

INTRODUCTION

The benefits of physical activity (PA) in breast cancer are currently recognized in primary prevention. The World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF) and then the National Cancer Institute (INCa) have reported conflicting results regarding the impact of post-diagnosis PA on breast cancer outcomes. The aim of this systematic review is to assess the association between PA after breast cancer diagnosis and overall mortality, specific mortality and risk of breast cancer recurrence in the literature.

METHODS

Randomized trials, prospective cohorts and meta-analyses studying post-diagnosis PA and overall mortality, breast cancer mortality or risk of recurrence after breast cancer published between January 1, 2014 and October 1, 2019 were included. The articles selected by the INCa report prior to 2014 were included in the literature review.

RESULTS

Eighteen articles have been selected. Studies unanimously concluded that overall mortality was reduced by post-diagnosis PA practice. For specific mortality, 5 meta-analyses showed a significant decrease in breast cancer mortality and 2 found a decrease in the risk of recurrence.

CONCLUSION

Post-diagnosis PA reduces overall mortality and appears to impact specific breast cancer mortality and risk of recurrence. However, these results need to be confirmed by larger randomized trials.

Dose-response relationship between physical activity and mortality in adults with noncommunicable diseases: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective observational studies

Background

This study aims to investigate the relationship between post-diagnosis physical activity and mortality in patients with selected noncommunicable diseases, including breast cancer, lung cancer, type 2 diabetes, ischemic heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), osteoarthritis, low back pain and major depressive disorder.

Methods

A systematic search was conducted of PubMed, Scopus and the Web of Science from their inception to August 2018. Additionally, the search was updated in August 2019. Eligibility criteria included prospective observational studies examining the relationship between at least three physical activity categories (e.g. low, moderate, high) and all-cause mortality as the primary outcome.

Results

In total, 28 studies were included in the meta-analysis: 12 for breast cancer, 6 for type 2 diabetes, 8 for ischemic heart disease and 2 for COPD. The linear meta-analysis revealed that each 10 metabolic equivalent task hours increase of physical activity per week was associated with a 22% lower mortality rate in breast cancer patients (Summary Hazard Ratio [HR], 0.78; 95% CI: 0.71, 0.86; I²: 90.1%), 12% in ischemic heart disease patients (HR, 0.88; 95% CI: 0.83, 0.93; I²: 86.5%), 30% in COPD patients (HR, 0.70; 95% CI: 0.45, 1.09; I²: 94%) and 4% in type 2 diabetes patients (HR, 0.96; 95% CI: 0.93, 0.99; I²: 71.8%). There was indication of a non-linear association with mortality risk reductions even for low levels of activity, as well as a flattening of the curve at higher levels of activity. The certainty of evidence was low for breast cancer, type 2 diabetes and ischemic heart disease but only very low for COPD.

Conclusion

Higher levels of post-diagnosis physical activity are associated with lower mortality rates in breast cancer, type 2 diabetes, ischemic heart disease and COPD patients, with indication of a no-threshold and non-linear dose–response pattern.

A Meta-analysis of the Association Between Physical Activity and Breast Cancer Mortality

BACKGROUND

There are conflicting data on the association between physical activity (PA) intensity and amount and prognosis of breast cancer. It is unknown whether increasing or decreasing PA is associated with all-cause mortality.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to estimate the associations between PA and the risk of mortality.

METHODS

MEDLINE and EMBASE were used to find eligible studies published from January 1970 to March 2017 for this meta-analysis. We included 24 studies, with a total of 144 224 patients and follow-up periods ranging from 1.9 to 12.7 years. We categorized the amount of PA as low (<300 min/wk), moderate (300-500 min/wk), and high (>500 min/wk).

RESULTS

We found that high amounts of PA had an inverse relationship with breast-cancer-specific mortality and all-cause morality. Patients who decreased PA after diagnosis showed poorer all-cause mortality, whereas patients who increased PA postdiagnosis had a favorable association with all-cause mortality. Last, patients who met PA guidelines after diagnosis had a lower breast-cancer-specific mortality and all-cause mortality.

CONCLUSION

Physical activity may play a pivotal role in reducing the risk of death. Getting at least 300 min/wk of moderate-intensity PA will help improve the risk of breast cancer death.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Participating in PA is an essential factor in breast cancer care that extends throughout the life span of cancer survivors. Higher levels of PA than current PA guidelines should be recommended to cancer patients.

Physical Activity and Mortality in Cancer Survivors: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background

Recommendations for improved survival after cancer through physical activity (PA) exist, although the evidence is still emerging. Our primary objective was to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between prediagnosis and postdiagnosis PA and survival (cancer-specific, all-cause, and cardiovascular disease mortality) for all cancers and by tumor site. Secondary objectives were to examine the associations within population subgroups, by PA domain, and to determine the optimal dose of PA related to survival.

Methods

PubMed, EMBASE, and SportsDiscus databases were searched from inception to November 1, 2018. DerSimonian-Laird random-effects models were used to estimate the summary hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for primary and secondary analyses and to conduct dose-response analyses.

Results

Evidence from 136 studies showed improved survival outcomes with highest vs lowest levels of prediagnosis or postdiagnosis total or recreational PA for all-cancers combined (cancer specific mortality: HR = 0.82, 95% CI = 0.79 to 0.86, and HR = 0.63, 95% CI = 0.53 to 0.75, respectively) as well as for 11 specific cancer sites. For breast and colorectal cancers, greater reductions were observed for postdiagnosis PA (HR = 0.58–0.63) compared with prediagnosis PA (HR = 0.80–0.86) for cancer-specific and all-cause mortality. Survival benefits through PA were observed in most subgroups (within sex, body mass index, menopausal status, colorectal subtypes, and PA domain) examined. Inverse dose-response relationships between PA and breast cancer-specific and all-cause mortality were observed, with steep reductions in hazards to 10–15 metabolic equivalent hours per week.

Conclusion

Higher prediagnosis and postdiagnosis levels of PA were associated with improved survival outcomes for at least 11 cancer types, providing support for global promotion of PA guidelines following cancer.

Physical Activity, Exercise and Breast Cancer - What Is the Evidence for Rehabilitation, Aftercare, and Survival? A Review

The current scientific field of exercise interventions in breast cancer is very large. Rehabilitation focuses on restoring or improving quality of life and thus on independence and participation in life. Hence, it is important to investigate exercise interventions in the setting of rehabilitation and aftercare. It is also necessary to determine the influence of physical activity or exercise therapy on the prevention of recurrence and mortality as well as on certain side effects of the disease and its medical treatment in rehabilitation. Physical activity in rehabilitation and aftercare is feasible and safe and can be used for various purposes. Against the background of reduced fatigue, chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy, cancer-related cognitive impairment, arthralgia, lymphedema, recurrence, and mortality, as well as improved quality of life, different methodological approaches and evidence can be seen. Although the overall data availability has increased, there are gaps in study documentation as well as inadequate verification of scientific approaches in rehabilitation clinics and in everyday life.

The Impact of Exercise on Cancer Mortality, Recurrence, and Treatment-Related Adverse Effects

The combination of an increasing number of new cancer cases and improving survival rates has led to a large and rapidly growing population with unique health-care requirements. Exercise has been proposed as a strategy to help address the issues faced by cancer patients. Supported by a growing body of research, major health organizations commonly identify the importance of incorporating exercise in cancer care and advise patients to be physically active. This systematic review comprehensively summarizes the available epidemiologic and randomized controlled trial evidence investigating the role of exercise in the management of cancer. Literature searches focused on determining the potential impact of exercise on 1) cancer mortality and recurrence and 2) adverse effects of cancer and its treatment. A total of 100 studies were reviewed involving thousands of individual patients whose exercise behavior was assessed following the diagnosis of any type of cancer. Compared with patients who performed no/less exercise, patients who exercised following a diagnosis of cancer were observed to have a lower relative risk of cancer mortality and recurrence and experienced fewer/less severe adverse effects. The findings of this review support the view that exercise is an important adjunct therapy in the management of cancer. Implications on cancer care policy and practice are discussed.

Predictors of adherence to exercise interventions during and after cancer treatment: A systematic review

Objective

Exercise interventions benefit cancer patients. However, only low numbers of patients adhere to these interventions. This review aimed to identify predictors of exercise intervention adherence in patients with cancer, during and after multimodality cancer treatment.

Methods

A literature search was performed using electronic databases (PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane) to identify relevant papers published before February 1, 2017. Papers reporting randomized controlled trials, conducted in adult cancer patients who participated in an exercise intervention during and/or after multimodality cancer treatment, and providing outcome of factors predicting exercise adherence were included. Papers were assessed for methodological quality by using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database scale.

Results

The search identified 720 potentially relevant papers, of which 15 fulfilled the eligibility criteria. In these 15 studies, 2279 patients were included and 1383 of these patients were randomized to an exercise intervention. During cancer treatment, the factors predicting exercise adherence were as follows: location of the rehabilitation center, extensive exercise history, high motivation for exercise, and fewer exercise limitations. After cancer treatment, factors that predicted adherence were as follows: less extensive surgery, low alcohol consumption, high previous exercise adherence, family support, feedback by trainers, and knowledge and skills of exercise. Methodological quality of the included papers was rated “high”.

Conclusions

The most prominent predictors of adherence to exercise interventions were location of the rehabilitation center, extensive exercise history, high motivation for exercise, and fewer exercise limitations. To increase the number of cancer patients who will benefit, these results should be considered into the development and implementation of future exercise interventions.

Epidemiology and biology of physical activity and cancer recurrence

Physical activity is emerging from epidemiologic research as a lifestyle factor that may improve survival from colorectal, breast, and prostate cancers. However, there is considerably less evidence relating physical activity to cancer recurrence and the biologic mechanisms underlying this association remain unclear. Cancer patients are surviving longer than ever before, and fear of cancer recurrence is an important concern. Herein, we provide an overview of the current epidemiologic evidence relating physical activity to cancer recurrence. We review the biologic mechanisms most commonly researched in the context of physical activity and cancer outcomes, and, using the example of colorectal cancer, we explore hypothesized mechanisms through which physical activity might intervene in the colorectal recurrence pathway. Our review highlights the importance of considering pre-diagnosis and post-diagnosis activity, as well as cancer stage and timing of recurrence, in epidemiologic studies. In addition, more epidemiologic research is needed with cancer recurrence as a consistently defined outcome studied separately from survival. Future mechanistic research using randomized controlled trials, specifically those demonstrating the exercise responsiveness of hypothesized mechanisms in early stages of carcinogenesis, are needed to inform recommendations about when to exercise and to anticipate additive or synergistic effects with other preventive behaviors or treatments.

Impact of chemotherapy on medium-term physical function and activity of older breast cancer survivors, and associated biomarkers

OBJECTIVE

Chemotherapy is less often prescribed in older individuals due to concerns about post-treatment morbidity and quality of life. We evaluated the physical performance of breast cancer survivors treated with and without adjuvant chemotherapy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We conducted a case-control study in 56 estrogen receptor positive breast cancer survivors (BCS) on adjuvant aromatase inhibitors 1-2years after definitive surgery. Cases had received adjuvant chemotherapy (n=27; age 70.5±3.6years) versus age-matched controls who had not (n=29; age 70.0±4.3years). Measures of grip strength, physical activity and performance, walking speed, fatigue, and self-reported physical function were collected. Biological correlates of inflammation, frailty and markers of DNA and RNA oxidation were compared.

RESULTS

Grip strength (controls: 21±7.4 vs.

CASES

29.7±5.0kg, p=0.20), physical activity (5403±3204 vs. 6801±9320steps/day, p=0.45), physical performance (short physical performance battery score: 10.1±1.8 vs. 10.4±1.1, p=0.52) and long-distance walking speed (1.2±0.21 vs. 1.3±0.41m/s, p=0.17) were similar between the two groups. Self-reported physical function was marginally lower in cases than controls (controls: 72±24 vs.

CASES

57±34AU, p=0.07). Fatigue disruptiveness was not different between groups (controls: 11.1±13.0 vs.

CASES

15.7±16.2AU, p=0.24). Similarly, the inflammation, oxidation, and frailty markers did not present a significant difference between groups, except for vitamin D levels (p=0.04).

CONCLUSION

Older women who received chemotherapy reported having slightly lower physical function, but a similar physical performance compared to women who did not. These data suggest that older BCS treated with chemotherapy recover to an extent similar to survivors who only received hormonal therapy.

Physical activity and survival in breast cancer

PURPOSE

Knowledge about lifestyle factors possibly influencing survival after breast cancer (BC) is paramount. We examined associations between two types of postdiagnosis physical activity (PA) and overall survival after BC.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We used prospective data on 959 BC survivors from the Diet, Cancer, and Health cohort, all enrolled before diagnosis. Self-reported PA was measured as time per activity, and estimated metabolic equivalent task (MET)-hours per week were summed for each activity. We constructed measures for household, exercise, and total PA. The association between postdiagnosis PA and all-cause mortality was estimated as hazard ratio (HRs) based on Cox proportional hazards model, with time since diagnosis as the underlying time scale. Prediagnosis PA, body mass index (BMI), and receptor status were examined as potential effect modifiers.

RESULTS

We identified 144 deaths from all causes during the study period. In adjusted analyses, exercise PA above eight MET h/week compared to lower levels of activity was significantly associated with improved overall survival (HR, 0.68; confidence interval [CI]: 0.47-0.99). When comparing participation in exercise to non-participation, we found a 44% risk reduction in overall survival (HR, 0.56; CI: 0.33-0.95). Neither between household nor total PA and overall survival did, we find significant associations. Prediagnosis PA, BMI, and receptor status did not modify the effect significantly.

CONCLUSION

Exercise PA corresponding to 2.5 h or more of brisk weekly walking after BC diagnosis may reduce mortality by up to 32% compared to low-level exercise. Participation in exercise PA may reduce mortality by 44% compared to non-participation.

Physical Activity and Cancer Outcomes: A Precision Medicine Approach

There is increasing interest in applying a precision medicine approach to understanding exercise as a potential treatment for cancer. We aimed to inform this new approach by appraising epidemiologic literature relating postdiagnosis physical activity to cancer outcomes overall and by molecular/genetic subgroups. Across 26 studies of breast, colorectal, and prostate cancer patients, a 37% reduction was seen in risk of cancer-specific mortality, comparing the most versus the least active patients (pooled relative risk = 0.63; 95% confidence interval: 0.54-0.73). Risks of recurrence or recurrence/cancer-specific death (combined outcome) were also reduced based on fewer studies. We identified ten studies of associations between physical activity and cancer outcomes by molecular or genetic markers. Two studies showed statistically significant risk reductions in breast cancer mortality/recurrence for the most (versus least) physically active estrogen receptor-positive/progesterone receptor-positive (ER⁺/PR⁺) patients, while others showed risk reductions among ER^-PR^- and triple-negative patients. In colorectal cancer, four studies showed statistically significant risk reductions in cancer-specific mortality for patients with high (versus low) physical activity and P21 expression, P27 expression, nuclear CTNNB1^-, PTGS2 (COX-2)⁺, or IRS1 low/negative status. One prostate cancer study showed effect modification by Gleason score. As a means to enhance this evidence, future observational studies are needed that will measure physical activity objectively before and after diagnosis, use standardized definitions for outcomes, control for competing risks, assess nonlinear dose-response relations, and consider reverse causality. Ultimately, randomized controlled trials with clinical cancer outcomes and a correlative component will provide the best evidence of causality, relating exercise to cancer outcomes, overall and for molecular and genetic subgroups. Clin Cancer Res; 22(19); 4766-75. ©2016 AACR.

Women with abnormal screening mammography lost to follow-up: An experience from Taiwan

Breast cancer has the highest incidence among all cancers for women in Taiwan. The current screening policy in Taiwan suggested a biennial mammography for all women 40 to 69 years of age. A recommendation for additional testing is recommended for women with a BI-RADS result of 0 or 4; a request made via postal mail. Approximately 20% of high-risk patients do not receive additional follow-up. Therefore, we aimed to explore the causes of these patients being lost to follow-up, despite an abnormal mammogram. Two questionnaires were designed separately according to the conceptual framework of the Health Belief Model. Study participants, women who received a screening mammography at the National Taiwan University Hospital in 2011 with a BI-RAD of 0 or 4, were interviewed via telephone. The dependent variable was receipt of follow-up or not. The analyses were performed by using χ tests and logistic regression models. In total, 528 women were enrolled in the study: 51.2% in BI-RADS 0 group and 56.6% in BI-RADS 4, respectively. In the BI-RADS 0 group, those patients who received a follow-up examination cited the most likely causes to be physician suggestion, health implications, and concerns regarding breast cancer. Patients who did not receive a follow-up examination cited a lack of time and a perception of good personal health as primary reasons. In the BI-RADS 4 group, those patients who received a follow-up examination cited the physician's recommendation and a recognition of the importance of follow-up examinations. Patients who did not receive a follow-up examination cited having received follow-up at another hospital and a desire for a second opinion. In the BI-RADS 0 group, multivariate analysis showed that patients with higher scores in the "perceived benefits" domain were statistically more likely to receive a follow-up examination. There was no significant difference in perceived threats, perceived barriers, action cues, or self-efficacy between groups. We conclude that additional education to raise breast cancer awareness in the general public and healthcare providers will be needed to improve the rate of follow-up examinations after an abnormal screening mammogram.

Randomized pilot trial of yoga versus strengthening exercises in breast cancer survivors with cancer-related fatigue

PURPOSE

Fatigue is one of the most common and bothersome refractory symptoms experienced by cancer survivors. Mindful exercise interventions such as yoga improve cancer-related fatigue; however, studies of yoga have included heterogeneous survivorship populations, and the effect of yoga on fatigued survivors remains unclear.

METHODS

We randomly assigned 34 early-stage breast cancer survivors with cancer-related fatigue (≥4 on a Likert scale from 1-10) within 1 year from diagnosis to a 12-week intervention of home-based yoga versus strengthening exercises, both presented on a DVD. The primary endpoints were feasibility and changes in fatigue, as measured by the Multidimensional Fatigue Symptom Inventory-Short Form (MFSI-SF). Secondary endpoint was quality of life, assessed by the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapies-Breast (FACT-B).

RESULTS

We invited 401 women to participate in the study; 78 responded, and we enrolled 34. Both groups had significant within-group improvement in multiple domains of the fatigue and quality of life scores from baseline to post-intervention, and these benefits were maintained at 3 months post-intervention. However, there was no significant difference between groups in fatigue or quality of life at any assessment time. Similarly, there was no difference between groups in adherence to the exercise intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

Both DVD-based yoga and strengthening exercises designed for cancer survivors may be good options to address fatigue in breast cancer survivors. Both have reasonable uptake, are convenient and reproducible, and may be helpful in decreasing fatigue and improving quality of life in the first year post-diagnosis in breast cancer patients with cancer-related fatigue.

Physical activity before and after breast cancer diagnosis and survival - the Norwegian women and cancer cohort study

Background

The main aim of this study was to investigate pre- and post-diagnostic physical activity (PA) levels, as well as changes in pre- and post-diagnostic PA levels, and their association with all-cause and breast cancer-specific mortality in women with breast cancer. Our study will add to the knowledge on whether a modifiable behavior such as PA can improve survival.

Methods

We included 1,327 women with breast cancer from the population-based Norwegian Women and Cancer study, which enrolled women from 1991 to 2003. Breast cancer cases were identified through linkage to the Cancer Registry of Norway; date and cause of death were obtained from the National Register for Causes of Death through 31 December 2012. Self-reported pre- and post-diagnostic PA levels were assessed, and Cox proportional hazard regression and spline regression were used to evaluate the associations.

Results

Pre-diagnostic PA levels were not associated with all-cause or breast cancer-specific mortality. Post-diagnostic PA levels were associated with a significant trend (P < 0.001) of decreased all-cause and breast cancer-specific mortality, which was stronger among older women (aged 50–74 years) and did not differ across categories of body mass index. All-cause mortality (hazard ratio [HR] = 1.76, 95 % confidence interval [CI] 1.21–2.56) and breast cancer-specific mortality (HR = 2.05, 95 % CI 1.35–3.10) increased among women who reduced their post-diagnostic PA level. These values were similar among women whose maintained an inactive PA level pre- and post-diagnosis.

Conclusion

Overall, we observed a dose–response trend, with an inverse association between increased post-diagnostic PA level and all-cause and breast cancer-specific mortality, as well as a higher mortality risk among women who reduced their post-diagnostic PA levels. Our results are very promising for women with breast cancer, and indicate that health care professionals should consider adding PA as a part of primary cancer treatment.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12885-015-1971-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Exercise training does not affect anthracycline antitumor efficacy while attenuating cardiac dysfunction

Highly effective anthracyclines, like doxorubicin (DOX), have limited clinical use due to protracted cardiotoxic effects. While exercise is known to be cardioprotective, it is unclear whether exercise compromises chemotherapy treatment efficacy. To determine the effect of exercise training on DOX antitumor efficacy as well as DOX-induced cardiotoxicity, female Fisher 344 rats were randomly assigned to sedentary + saline (SED+SAL), SED+DOX, wheel run exercise training + SAL (WR+SAL), or WR+DOX. On week 11, animals were inoculated with 1×10(6) MatBIII tumor cells. Once tumors reached ∼1 cm in diameter, animals were treated with 12 mg/kg of DOX or SAL. Animals were killed 1, 3, or 5 days following treatment. Tumor growth and cardiac function were measured at each interval. DOX accumulation and multidrug resistance protein (MRP) expression were quantified in tumor and heart tissue. No significant difference (P > 0.05) existed between DOX-treated SED and WR groups for tumor measurements. Exercise preserved cardiac function up to 5 days following DOX treatment. Exercise reduced ventricular DOX accumulation and upregulated ventricular MPR1 and MPR2. In contrast, no differences were observed in DOX accumulation or MRP expression in tumors of SED and WR animals. Endurance exercise had no effect on DOX antitumor efficacy as evidenced by a definitive DOX-induced reduction in tumor growth in both the SED and WR groups. Although exercise did not affect the antitumor efficacy of DOX, it still provided protection against cardiac dysfunction. These effects may be mediated by the degree of DOX tissue accumulation secondary to the regulation of MRP expression.