Pax3 and Pax7 interact reciprocally and regulate the expression of cadherin-7 through inducing neuron differentiation in the developing chicken spinal cord

Prenatal cadmium exposure impairs neural tube closure via inducing excessive apoptosis in neuroepithelium

Birth defects have become a public health concern. The hazardous environmental factors exposure to embryos could increase the risk of birth defects. Cadmium, a toxic environmental factor, can cross the placental barrier during pregnancy. Pregnant woman may be subjected to cadmium before taking precautionary protective actions. However, the link between birth defects and cadmium remains obscure. Cadmium exposure can induce excessive apoptosis in neuroepithelium during embryonic development progresses. Cadmium exposure activated the p53 via enhancing the adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and reactive oxygen species' (ROS) level. And cadmium decreases the level of Paired box 3 (Pax3) and murine double minute 2 (Mdm2), disrupting the process of p53 ubiquitylation. And p53 accumulation induced excessive apoptosis in neuroepithelium during embryonic development progresses. Excessive apoptosis led to the failure of neural tube closure. The study emphasizes that environmental materials may increase the health risk for embryos. Cadmium caused the failure of neural tube closure during early embryotic day. Pregnant women may be exposed by cadmium before taking precautionary protective actions, because of cadmium concentration-containing foods and environmental tobacco smoking. This suggests that prenatal cadmium exposure is a threatening risk factor for birth defects.

SoxB1 transcription factors are essential for initiating and maintaining the neural plate border gene expression

SoxB1 transcription factors (Sox2/3) are well known for their role in early neural fate specification in the embryo, but little is known about functional roles for SoxB1 factors in non-neural ectodermal cell types, such as the neural plate border (NPB). Using Xenopus laevis , we set out to determine if SoxB1 transcription factors have a regulatory function in NPB formation. Herein, we show that SoxB1 factors are necessary for NPB formation, and that prolonged SoxB1 factor activity blocks the transition from a NPB to a neural crest state. Using ChIP-seq we demonstrate that Sox3 is enriched upstream of NPB genes in early NPB cells and, surprisingly, in blastula stem cells. Depletion of SoxB1 factors in blastula stem cells results in downregulation of NPB genes. Finally, we identify Pou5f3 factors as a potential SoxB1 partners in regulating the formation of the NPB and show their combined activity is needed to maintain NPB gene expression. Together, these data identify a novel role for SoxB1 factors in the establishment and maintenance of the NPB, in part through partnership with Pou5f3 factors.

Developmental Characteristics of Skeletal Muscle during the Embryonic Stage in Chinese Yellow Quail (Coturnix japonica)

The quail is an important research model, and the demand for quail meat has been increasing in recent years; therefore, it is worthwhile investigating the development of embryonic skeletal muscle and the expression patterns of regulatory genes. In this study, the expression of MyoD and Pax7 in the breast muscle (m. pectoralis major) and leg muscle (m. biceps femoris) of quail embryos on days 10 through 17 were determined using qRT-PCR. Paraffin sections of embryonic muscle were analyzed to characterize changes over time. Results showed that MyoD and Pax7 were expressed in both breast and leg muscles and played a significant role in embryonic muscle development. Compared to breast muscle, leg muscle grew faster and had greater weight and myofiber size. The findings suggested that embryonic day 12 (E12) may be a key point for muscle development. Correlation analysis showed that MyoD expression was significantly negatively correlated with muscle and embryo weight, whereas Pax7 gene expression had no significant correlation with these characteristics. These fundamental results provide a theoretical basis for understanding the characteristics and transition points of skeletal muscle development in quail embryos and an important reference for farmers raising quail from eggs.

Restoration of functional PAX3 transcriptional factor enhanced neuronal differentiation in PAX3b isoform-depleted neuroblastoma cells

Reexpressed PAX3 transcription factor is believed to be responsible for the differentiation defects observed in neuroblastoma. Although the importance of PAX3 in neuronal differentiation is documented how it is involved in the defective differentiation remains unexplored particularly with its isoforms. Here, first we have analyzed PAX3 expression, its functional status, and its correlation with the neuronal marker expression in SH-SY5Y and its parental SK-N-SH cells. We have found that SH-SY5Y cells which expressed more PAX3 showed increased expression of neuronal marker genes (TUBB, MAP2, NEFL, NEUROG2, SYP) and reported PAX3 target genes (MET, TGFA, and NCAM1) than the SK-N-SH cells that had low PAX3 level. Retinoic acid treatment is unable to induce neuronal differentiation in cells (SK-N-SH) with low PAX3 level/activity. Moreover, ectopic expression of PAX3 in SK-N-SH cells neither induces neuronal marker genes nor its target genes. PAX3 isoform expression analysis revealed the expression of PAX3b isoform that contains only paired domain in SK-N-SH cells, whereas in SH-SY5Y cells, we could also observe PAX3c isoform that contains all functional domains. Further, PAX3b depletion in SK-N-SH cells is not induced PAX3 target genes, and the cells remain poorly differentiated. Interestingly, ectopic PAX3 expression in PAX3b-depleted SK-N-SH cells enhanced neuronal outgrowth along with neuronal marker gene induction. Collectively, these results showed that the PAX3b isoform may be responsible for the differentiation defect observed in SK-N-SH cells and restoration of functional PAX3 in the absence of PAX3b can induce neurogenesis in these cells.

Adhesion-Based Self-Organization in Tissue Patterning

Since the proposal of the differential adhesion hypothesis, scientists have been fascinated by how cell adhesion mediates cellular self-organization to form spatial patterns during development. The search for molecular tool kits with homophilic binding specificity resulted in a diverse repertoire of adhesion molecules. Recent understanding of the dominant role of cortical tension over adhesion binding redirects the focus of differential adhesion studies to the signaling function of adhesion proteins to regulate actomyosin contractility. The broader framework of differential interfacial tension encompasses both adhesion and nonadhesion molecules, sharing the common function of modulating interfacial tension during cell sorting to generate diverse tissue patterns. Robust adhesion-based patterning requires close coordination between morphogen signaling, cell fate decisions, and changes in adhesion. Current advances in bridging theoretical and experimental approaches present exciting opportunities to understand molecular, cellular, and tissue dynamics during adhesion-based tissue patterning across multiple time and length scales.

Cell fate determining molecular switches and signaling pathways in Pax7-expressing somitic mesoderm

During development, different cell types originate from a common progenitor at well-defined time points. Previous lineage-tracing of Pax7⁺ progenitors from the somitic mesoderm has established its developmental trajectory towards the dermis, brown adipocytes, and skeletal muscle in the dorsal trunk; yet the molecular switches and mechanisms guiding the differentiation into different lineages remain unknown. We performed lineage-tracing of Pax7-expressing cells in mouse embryos at E9.5 and profiled the transcriptomes of Pax7-progenies on E12.5, E14.5, and E16.5 at single-cell level. Analysis of single-cell transcriptomic data at multiple time points showed temporal-specific differentiation events toward muscle, dermis, and brown adipocyte, identified marker genes for putative progenitors and revealed transcription factors that could drive lineage-specific differentiation. We then utilized a combination of surface markers identified in the single-cell data, Pdgfra, Thy1, and Cd36, to enrich brown adipocytes, dermal fibroblasts, and progenitors specific for these two cell types at E14.5 and E16.5. These enriched cell populations were then used for further culture and functional assays in vitro, in which Wnt5a and Rgcc are shown to be important factors that could alter lineage decisions during embryogenesis. Notably, we found a bipotent progenitor population at E14.5, having lineage potentials towards both dermal fibroblasts and brown adipocytes. They were termed eFAPs (embryonic fibro/adipogenic progenitors) as they functionally resemble adult fibro/adipogenic progenitors. Overall, this study provides further understanding of the Pax7 lineage during embryonic development using a combination of lineage tracing with temporally sampled single-cell transcriptomics.

Altered sacral neural crest development in Pax3 spina bifida mutants underlies deficits of bladder innervation and function

Mouse models of Spina bifida (SB) have been instrumental for identifying genes, developmental processes, and environmental factors that influence neurulation and neural tube closure. Beyond the prominent neural tube defects, other aspects of the nervous system can be affected in SB with significant changes in essential bodily functions such as urination. SB patients frequently experience bladder dysfunction and SB fetuses exhibit reduced density of bladder nerves and smooth muscle although the developmental origins of these deficits have not been determined. The Pax3 Splotch-delayed (Pax3^Sp-d) mouse model of SB is one of a very few mouse SB models that survives to late stages of gestation. Through analysis of Pax3^Sp-d mutants we sought to define how altered bladder innervation in SB might arise by tracing sacral neural crest (NC) development, pelvic ganglia neuronal differentiation, and assessing bladder nerve fiber density. In Pax3^Sp-d/Sp-d fetal mice we observed delayed migration of Sox10+ NC-derived progenitors (NCPs), deficient pelvic ganglia neurogenesis, and reduced density of bladder wall innervation. We further combined NC-specific deletion of Pax3 with the constitutive Pax3^Sp-d allele in an effort to generate viable Pax3 mutants to examine later stages of bladder innervation and postnatal bladder function. Neural crest specific deletion of a Pax3 flox allele, using a Sox10-cre driver, in combination with a constitutive Pax3^Sp-d mutation produced postnatal viable offspring that exhibited altered bladder function as well as reduced bladder wall innervation and altered connectivity between accessory ganglia at the bladder neck. Combined, the results show that Pax3 plays critical roles within sacral NC that are essential for initiation of neurogenesis and differentiation of autonomic neurons within pelvic ganglia.

Distribution of Cadherin in the Parahippocampal Area of Developing Domestic Chicken Embryos

Hippocampal formation is important in spatial learning and memory. Members of the cadherin superfamily are observed in the neural system with diverse spatial and temporal expression patterns and are involved in many biological processes. To date, the avian hippocampal formation is not well understood. In this study, we examined the expression of cadherin mRNA in chicken and mouse brains to investigate the morphological and cytoarchitectural bases of hippocampal formation. Profiles of the spatiotemporal expression of cadherin mRNAs in the developing chicken embryonic parahippocampal area (APH) are provided, and layer-specific expression and spatiotemporal expression were observed in different subdivisions of the APH. That fact that some cadherins (Cdh2, Cdh8, Pcdh8 and Pcdh10) showed conserved regional expression both in the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex of mice and the hippocampal formation of chickens partially confirmed the structural homology proposed by previous scientists. This study indicates that some cadherins can be used as special markers of the avian hippocampal formation.

Effect of sonic hedgehog on motor neuron positioning in the spinal cord during chicken embryonic development

Sonic hedgehog (SHH) is a vertebrate homologue of the secreted Drosophila protein hedgehog and is expressed by the notochord and floor plate in the developing spinal cord. Sonic hedgehog provides signals relevant for positional information, cell proliferation and possibly cell survival, depending on the time and location of expression. Although the role of SHH in providing positional information in the neural tube has been experimentally proven, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. In this study, in ovo electroporation was employed in the chicken spinal cord during chicken embryo development. Electroporation was conducted at stage 17 (E2.5), after electroporation the embryos were continued incubating to stage 28 (E6) for sampling, tissue fixation with 4% paraformaldehyde and frozen sectioning. Sonic hedgehog and related protein expressions were detected by in situ hybridization and fluorescence immunohistochemistry and the results were analysed after microphotography. Our results indicate that the ectopic expression of SHH leads to ventralization in the spinal cord during chicken embryonic development by inducing abnormalities in the structure of the motor column and motor neuron integration. In addition, ectopic SHH expression inhibits the expression of dorsal transcription factors and commissural axon projections. The correct location of SHH expression is vital to the formation of the motor column. Ectopic expression of SHH in the spinal cord not only affects the positioning of motor neurons, but also induces abnormalities in the structure of the motor column. It leads to ventralization in the spinal cord, resulting in the formation of more ventral neurons forming during neuronal formation.

A catenin-dependent balance between N-cadherin and E-cadherin controls neuroectodermal cell fate choices

Characterizing endogenous protein expression, interaction and function, this study identifies in vivo interactions and competitive balance between N-cadherin and E-cadherin in developing avian (Gallus gallus) neural and neural crest cells. Numerous cadherin proteins, including neural cadherin (Ncad) and epithelial cadherin (Ecad), are expressed in the developing neural plate as well as in neural crest cells as they delaminate from the newly closed neural tube. To clarify independent or coordinate function during development, we examined their expression in the cranial region. The results revealed surprising overlap and distinct localization of Ecad and Ncad in the neural tube. Using a proximity ligation assay and co-immunoprecipitation, we found that Ncad and Ecad formed heterotypic complexes in the developing neural tube, and that modulation of Ncad levels led to reciprocal gain or reduction of Ecad protein, which then alters ectodermal cell fate. Here, we demonstrate that the balance of Ecad and Ncad is dependent upon the availability of β-catenin proteins, and that alteration of either classical cadherin modifies the proportions of the neural crest and neuroectodermal cells that are specified.

Cadherin-7 enhances Sonic Hedgehog signalling by preventing Gli3 repressor formation during neural tube patterning

Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) is a ventrally enriched morphogen controlling dorsoventral patterning of the neural tube. In the dorsal spinal cord, Gli3 protein bound to suppressor-of-fused (Sufu) is converted into Gli3 repressor (Gli3R), which inhibits Shh-target genes. Activation of Shh signalling prevents Gli3R formation, promoting neural tube ventralization. We show that cadherin-7 (Cdh7) expression in the intermediate spinal cord region is required to delimit the boundary between the ventral and the dorsal spinal cord. We demonstrate that Cdh7 functions as a receptor for Shh and enhances Shh signalling. Binding of Shh to Cdh7 promotes its aggregation on the cell membrane and association of Cdh7 with Gli3 and Sufu. These interactions prevent Gli3R formation and cause Gli3 protein degradation. We propose that Shh can act through Cdh7 to limit intracellular movement of Gli3 protein and production of Gli3R, thus eliciting more efficient activation of Gli-dependent signalling.

Conserved gene regulatory module specifies lateral neural borders across bilaterians

The lateral neural plate border (NPB), the neural part of the vertebrate neural border, is composed of central nervous system (CNS) progenitors and peripheral nervous system (PNS) progenitors. In invertebrates, PNS progenitors are also juxtaposed to the lateral boundary of the CNS. Whether there are conserved molecular mechanisms determining vertebrate and invertebrate lateral neural borders remains unclear. Using single-cell-resolution gene-expression profiling and genetic analysis, we present evidence that orthologs of the NPB specification module specify the invertebrate lateral neural border, which is composed of CNS and PNS progenitors. First, like in vertebrates, the conserved neuroectoderm lateral border specifier Msx/vab-15 specifies lateral neuroblasts in Caenorhabditis elegans Second, orthologs of the vertebrate NPB specification module (Msx/vab-15, Pax3/7/pax-3, and Zic/ref-2) are significantly enriched in worm lateral neuroblasts. In addition, like in other bilaterians, the expression domain of Msx/vab-15 is more lateral than those of Pax3/7/pax-3 and Zic/ref-2 in C. elegans Third, we show that Msx/vab-15 regulates the development of mechanosensory neurons derived from lateral neural progenitors in multiple invertebrate species, including C. elegans, Drosophila melanogaster, and Ciona intestinalis We also identify a novel lateral neural border specifier, ZNF703/tlp-1, which functions synergistically with Msx/vab-15 in both C. elegans and Xenopus laevis These data suggest a common origin of the molecular mechanism specifying lateral neural borders across bilaterians.

Pax3 overexpression induces cell aggregation and perturbs commissural axon projection during embryonic spinal cord development

Pax3 is a transcription factor that belongs to the paired box family. In the developing spinal cord it is expressed in the dorsal commissural neurons, which project ascending axons contralaterally to form proper spinal cord-brain circuitry. While it has been shown that Pax3 induces cell aggregation in vitro, little is known about the role of Pax3 in cell aggregation and spinal circuit formation in vivo. We have reported that Pax3 is involved in neuron differentiation and that its overexpression induces ectopic cadherin-7 expression. In this study we report that Pax3 overexpression also induces cell aggregation in vivo. Tissue sections and open book preparations revealed that Pax3 overexpression prevents commissural axons from projecting to the contralateral side of the spinal cord. Cells overexpressing Pax3 aggregated in cell clusters that contained shortened neurites with perturbed axon growth and elongation. Pax3-specific shRNA partially rescued the morphological change induced by Pax3 overexpression in vivo. Our results indicate that the normal expression of Pax3 is necessary for proper axonal pathway finding and commissural axon projection. In conclusion, Pax3 regulates neural circuit formation during embryonic development. J. Comp. Neurol. 525:1618-1632, 2017. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

N-cadherin regulates beta-catenin signal and its misexpression perturbs commissural axon projection in the developing chicken spinal cord

N-cadherin is a calcium-sensitive cell adhesion molecule that plays an important role in the formation of the neural circuit and the development of the nervous system. In the present study, we investigated the function of N-cadherin in cell-cell connection in vitro with HEK293T cells, and in commissural axon projections in the developing chicken spinal cord using in ovo electroporation. Cell-cell connections increased with N-cadherin overexpression in HEK293T cells, while cell contacts disappeared after co-transfection with an N-cadherin-shRNA plasmid. The knockdown of N-cadherin caused the accumulation of β-catenin in the nucleus, supporting the notion that N-cadherin regulates β-catenin signaling in vitro. Furthermore, N-cadherin misexpression perturbed commissural axon projections in the spinal cord. The overexpression of N-cadherin reduced the number of axons that projected alongside the contralateral margin of the floor plate, and formed intermediate longitudinal commissural axons. In contrast, the knockdown of N-cadherin perturbed commissural axon projections significantly, affecting the projections alongside the contralateral margin of the floor plate, but did not affect intermediate longitudinal commissural axons. Taken together, these findings suggest that N-cadherin regulates commissural axon projections in the developing chicken spinal cord.