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Cottam NC, Ofori K, Bryant M, Rogge JR, Hekmatyar K, Sun J, Charvet CJ. From circuits to lifespan: translating mouse and human timelines with neuroimaging based tractography. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.07.28.605528. [PMID: 39131378 PMCID: PMC11312435 DOI: 10.1101/2024.07.28.605528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/13/2024]
Abstract
Age is a major predictor of developmental processes and disease risk, but humans and model systems (e.g., mice) differ substantially in the pace of development and aging. The timeline of human developmental circuits is well known. It is unclear how such timelines compare to those in mice. We lack age alignments across the lifespan of mice and humans. Here, we build upon our Translating Time resource, which is a tool that equates corresponding ages during development. We collected 477 time points (n=1,132 observations) from age-related changes in body, bone, dental, and brain processes to equate corresponding ages across humans and mice. We acquired high-resolution diffusion MR scans of mouse brains (n=12) at sequential stages of postnatal development (postnatal day 3, 4, 12, 21, 60) to trace the timeline of brain circuit maturation (e.g., olfactory association pathway, corpus callosum). We found heterogeneity in white matter pathway growth. The corpus callosum largely ceases to grow days after birth while the olfactory association pathway grows through P60. We found that a P3 mouse equates to a human at roughly GW24, and a P60 mouse equates to a human in teenage years. Therefore, white matter pathway maturation is extended in mice as it is in humans, but there are species-specific adaptations. For example, olfactory-related wiring is protracted in mice, which is linked to their reliance on olfaction. Our findings underscore the importance of translational tools to map common and species-specific biological processes from model systems to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas C. Cottam
- Department of Biological Sciences, Delaware State University, Dover, DE, USA
| | - Kwadwo Ofori
- Department of Biological Sciences, Delaware State University, Dover, DE, USA
| | - Madison Bryant
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Jessica R. Rogge
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, USA
| | - Khan Hekmatyar
- Center for Biomedical and Brain Imaging Center, University of Delaware, Wilmington, DE, USA
- Advanced Translational Imaging Facility, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA
| | - Jianli Sun
- Department of Biological Sciences, Delaware State University, Dover, DE, USA
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Stancu M, Wohlfrom H, Heß M, Grothe B, Leibold C, Kopp-Scheinpflug C. Ambient sound stimulation tunes axonal conduction velocity by regulating radial growth of myelin on an individual, axon-by-axon basis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2024; 121:e2316439121. [PMID: 38442165 PMCID: PMC10945791 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2316439121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 03/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Adaptive myelination is the emerging concept of tuning axonal conduction velocity to the activity within specific neural circuits over time. Sound processing circuits exhibit structural and functional specifications to process signals with microsecond precision: a time scale that is amenable to adjustment in length and thickness of myelin. Increasing activity of auditory axons by introducing sound-evoked responses during postnatal development enhances myelin thickness, while sensory deprivation prevents such radial growth during development. When deprivation occurs during adulthood, myelin thickness was reduced. However, it is unclear whether sensory stimulation adjusts myelination in a global fashion (whole fiber bundles) or whether such adaptation occurs at the level of individual fibers. Using temporary monaural deprivation in mice provided an internal control for a) differentially tracing structural changes in active and deprived fibers and b) for monitoring neural activity in response to acoustic stimulation of the control and the deprived ear within the same animal. The data show that sound-evoked activity increased the number of myelin layers around individual active axons, even when located in mixed bundles of active and deprived fibers. Thicker myelination correlated with faster axonal conduction velocity and caused shorter auditory brainstem response wave VI-I delays, providing a physiologically relevant readout. The lack of global compensation emphasizes the importance of balanced sensory experience in both ears throughout the lifespan of an individual.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mihai Stancu
- Division of Neurobiology, Faculty of Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried82152, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology, Munich81377, Germany
- Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences, Planegg-Martinsried82152, Germany
| | - Hilde Wohlfrom
- Division of Neurobiology, Faculty of Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried82152, Germany
| | - Martin Heß
- Division of Neurobiology, Faculty of Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried82152, Germany
| | - Benedikt Grothe
- Division of Neurobiology, Faculty of Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried82152, Germany
- Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology, Munich81377, Germany
| | - Christian Leibold
- Division of Neurobiology, Faculty of Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried82152, Germany
- Faculty of Biology, Bernstein Center Freiburg, BrainLinks-BrainTools, University of Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau79110, Germany
| | - Conny Kopp-Scheinpflug
- Division of Neurobiology, Faculty of Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Planegg-Martinsried82152, Germany
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Chen JF, Wang F, Huang NX, Xiao L, Mei F. Oligodendrocytes and Myelin: Active players in Neurodegenerative brains? Dev Neurobiol 2022; 82:160-174. [PMID: 35081276 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 01/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Oligodendrocytes (OLs) are a major type of glial cells in the central nervous system that generate multiple myelin sheaths to wrap axons. Myelin ensures fast and efficient propagation of action potentials along axons and supports neurons with nourishment. The decay of OLs and myelin has been implicated in age-related neurodegenerative diseases and these changes are generally considered as an inevitable result of neuron loss and axon degeneration. Noticeably, OLs and myelin undergo dynamic changes in healthy adult brains, that is, newly formed OLs are continuously added throughout life from the differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) and the pre-existing myelin sheaths may undergo degeneration or remodeling. Increasing evidence has shown that changes in OLs and myelin are present in the early stages of neurodegenerative diseases, and even prior to significant neuronal loss and functional deficits. More importantly, oligodendroglia-specific manipulation, by either deletion of the disease gene or enhancement of myelin renewal, can alleviate functional impairments in neurodegenerative animal models. These findings underscore the possibility that OLs and myelin are not passively but actively involved in neurodegenerative diseases and may play an important role in modulating neuronal function and survival. In this review, we summarize recent work characterizing OL and myelin changes in both healthy and neurodegenerative brains and discuss the potential of targeting oligodendroglial cells in treating neurodegenerative diseases. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Fei Chen
- Brain and Intelligence Research Key Laboratory of Chongqing Education Commission, Department of Histology and Embryology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Fei Wang
- Brain and Intelligence Research Key Laboratory of Chongqing Education Commission, Department of Histology and Embryology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Nan-Xing Huang
- Brain and Intelligence Research Key Laboratory of Chongqing Education Commission, Department of Histology and Embryology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Lan Xiao
- Brain and Intelligence Research Key Laboratory of Chongqing Education Commission, Department of Histology and Embryology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
| | - Feng Mei
- Brain and Intelligence Research Key Laboratory of Chongqing Education Commission, Department of Histology and Embryology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, 400038, China
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Fenlon LR, Suarez R, Lynton Z, Richards LJ. The evolution, formation and connectivity of the anterior commissure. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2021; 118:50-59. [PMID: 33958283 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2021.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The anterior commissure is the most ancient of the forebrain interhemispheric connections among all vertebrates. Indeed, it is the predominant pallial commissure in all non-eutherian vertebrates, universally subserving basic functions related to olfaction and survival. A key feature of the anterior commissure is its ability to convey connections from diverse brain areas, such as most of the neocortex in non-eutherian mammals, thereby mediating the bilateral integration of diverse functions. Shared developmental mechanisms between the anterior commissure and more evolutionarily recent commissures, such as the corpus callosum in eutherians, have led to the hypothesis that the former may have been a precursor for additional expansion of commissural circuits. However, differences between the formation of the anterior commissure and other telencephalic commissures suggest that independent developmental mechanisms underlie the emergence of these connections in extant species. Here, we review the developmental mechanisms and connectivity of the anterior commissure across evolutionarily distant species, and highlight its potential functional importance in humans, both in the course of normal neurodevelopment, and as a site of plastic axonal rerouting in the absence or damage of other connections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura R Fenlon
- The University of Queensland, The Queensland Brain Institute, Brisbane, Australia.
| | - Rodrigo Suarez
- The University of Queensland, The Queensland Brain Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Zorana Lynton
- The University of Queensland, The Queensland Brain Institute, Brisbane, Australia; The Faculty of Medicine, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Linda J Richards
- The University of Queensland, The Queensland Brain Institute, Brisbane, Australia; The School of Biomedical Sciences, Brisbane, Australia.
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Richards K, Jancovski N, Hanssen E, Connelly A, Petrou S. Atypical myelinogenesis and reduced axon caliber in the Scn1a variant model of Dravet syndrome: An electron microscopy pilot study of the developing and mature mouse corpus callosum. Brain Res 2020; 1751:147157. [PMID: 33069731 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2020.147157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2020] [Revised: 09/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Dravet Syndrome (DS) is a genetic neurodevelopmental disease. Recurrent severe seizures begin in infancy and co-morbidities follow, including developmental delay, cognitive and behavioral dysfunction. A majority of DS patients have an SCN1A heterozygous gene mutation. This mutation causes a loss-of-function in inhibitory neurons, initiating seizure onset. We have investigated whether the sodium channelopathy may result in structural changes in the DS model independent of seizures. Morphometric analyses of axons within the corpus callosum were completed at P16 and P50 in Scn1a heterozygote KO male mice and their age-matched wild-type littermates. Trainable machine learning algorithms were used to examine electron microscopy images of ~400 myelinated axons per animal, per genotype, including myelinated axon cross-section area, frequency distribution and g-ratios. Pilot data for Scn1a heterozygote KO mice demonstrate the average axon caliber was reduced in developing and adult mice. Qualitative analysis also shows micro-features marking altered myelination at P16 in the DS model, with myelin out-folding and myelin debris within phagocytic cells. The data has indicated, in the absence of behavioral seizures, factors that governed a shift toward small calibre axons at P16 have persisted in adult Scn1a heterozygote KO corpus callosum. The pilot study provides a basis for future meta-analysis that will enable robust estimates of the effects of the sodium channelopathy on axon architecture. We propose that early therapeutic strategies in DS could help minimize the effect of sodium channelopathies, beyond the impact of overt seizures, and therefore achieve better long-term treatment outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kay Richards
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Australia
| | | | - Eric Hanssen
- Bio21 Advanced Microscopy Facility, Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Australia
| | - Alan Connelly
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Australia; Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Australia
| | - Steve Petrou
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Australia.
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Collins L, Brunjes P. Experimental Demyelination of the Lateral Olfactory Tract and Anterior Commissure. Neuroscience 2020; 434:93-101. [PMID: 32224229 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Demyelination significantly affects brain function. Several experimental methods, each inducing varying levels of myelin and neuronal damage, have been developed to understand the process of myelin loss and to find new therapies to promote remyelination. The present work investigates the effect of one such method, lysolecithin administration, on the white matter tracts in the olfactory system. The olfactory forebrain contains two distinct tracts with differing developmental histories, axonal composition, and function: the lateral olfactory tract (LOT), which carries ipsilateral olfactory information from the olfactory bulb to olfactory cortex, and the anterior commissure (AC), which interconnects olfactory regions across hemispheres. The effects of lysolecithin injections were assessed in two ways: (1) the expression of myelin basic protein, a component of compacted myelin sheaths, was quantified using immunohistochemistry and (2) electron microscopy was used to obtain measurements of myelin thickness of individual axons as well as qualitative descriptions of the extent of damage to myelin and surrounding tissue. Data were collected at 7, 14, 21, and 30 days post-injection (dpi). While both the LOT and AC exhibited significant demyelination at 7 dpi and had returned to control levels by 30 dpi, the process differed between the two tracts. Remyelination occurred more rapidly in the LOT: substantial recovery was observed in the LOT by 14 dpi, but not in the AC until 21 dpi. The findings indicate that (a) the LOT and AC are indeed suitable tracts for studying lysolecithin-induced de- and remyelination and (b) experimental demyelination proceeds differently between the two tracts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay Collins
- University of Virginia, Department of Psychology, United States; University of Oregon, Institute of Neuroscience, United States.
| | - Peter Brunjes
- University of Virginia, Department of Psychology, United States
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Gradual wiring of olfactory input to amygdala feedback circuits. Sci Rep 2020; 10:5871. [PMID: 32245993 PMCID: PMC7125095 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-62457-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2019] [Accepted: 03/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The amygdala facilitates odor driven behavioral responses by enhancing the saliency of olfactory signals. Before this processing, olfactory input is refined through the feedback provided by amygdala corticofugal projection (ACPs). Although the saliency of odor signals is subject to developmental changes, the stage at which this cortical feedback first occurs is not known. Using optogenetically-assisted intracellular recordings of the mouse cortical amygdala, we identified changes in the electrophysiological properties of ACPs at different developmental stages. These were consistent with a decrease in neuronal excitability and an increase in the amount of incoming accessory olfactory bulb (AOB) inputs, as confirmed by estimates of release probability, quantal size and contact number at the AOB-to-ACP synapse. Moreover, the proportion of ACPs activated in response to odors was dependent on the stage of development as revealed by c-Fos expression analysis. These results update standard accounts of how the amygdala processes social signals by emphasizing the occurrence of critical periods in the development of its sensory gating functions.
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Collins LN, Brunjes PC. The mouse olfactory peduncle 4: Development of synapses, perineuronal nets, and capillaries. J Comp Neurol 2020; 528:637-649. [PMID: 31571216 PMCID: PMC6944759 DOI: 10.1002/cne.24778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2019] [Revised: 09/03/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Olfaction is critical for survival in neonatal mammals. However, little is known about the neural substrate for this ability as few studies of synaptic development in several olfactory processing regions have been reported. Odor information detected in the nasal cavity is first processed by the olfactory bulb and then sent via the lateral olfactory tract to a series of olfactory cortical areas. The first of these, the anterior olfactory nucleus pars principalis (AONpP), is a simple, two layered cortex with an outer plexiform and inner cell zone (Layers 1 and 2, respectively). Five sets of studies examined age-related changes in the AONpP. First, immunocytochemistry for glutamatergic (VGlut1 and VGlut2) and GABAergic (VGAT) synapses demonstrated that overall synaptic patterns remained uniform with age. The second set quantified synaptic development with electron microscopy and found different developmental patterns between Layers 1 and 2. As many of the interhemispheric connections in the olfactory system arise from AONpP, the third set examined the development of crossed projections using anterograde tracers and electron microscopy to explore the maturation of this pathway. A fourth study examined ontogenetic changes in immunostaining for the proteoglycans aggrecan and brevican, markers of mesh-like extracellular structures known as perineuronal nets whose maturation is associated with the end of early critical periods of synaptogenesis. A final study found no age-related changes in the density of vasculature in the peduncle from P5 to P30. This work is among the first to examine early postnatal changes in this initial cortical region of the olfactory system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay N. Collins
- Department Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904 USA
| | - Peter C. Brunjes
- Department Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904 USA
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Martin-Lopez E, Xu C, Liberia T, Meller SJ, Greer CA. Embryonic and postnatal development of mouse olfactory tubercle. Mol Cell Neurosci 2019; 98:82-96. [PMID: 31200100 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2019.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2018] [Revised: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 06/10/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The olfactory tubercle (OT) is located in the ventral-medial region of the brain where it receives primary input from olfactory bulb (OB) projection neurons and processes olfactory behaviors related to motivation, hedonics of smell and sexual encounters. The OT is part of the dopamine reward system that shares characteristics with the striatum. Together with the nucleus accumbens, the OT has been referred to as the "ventral striatum". However, despite its functional importance little is known about the embryonic development of the OT and the phenotypic properties of the OT cells. Here, using thymidine analogs, we establish that mouse OT neurogenesis occurs predominantly between E11-E15 in a lateral-to-medial gradient. Then, using a piggyBac multicolor technique we characterized the migratory route of OT neuroblasts from their embryonic point of origin. Following neurogenesis in the ventral lateral ganglionic eminence (vLGE), neuroblasts destined for the OT followed a dorsal-ventral pathway we named "ventral migratory course" (VMC). Upon reaching the nascent OT, neurons established a prototypical laminar distribution that was determined, in part, by the progenitor cell of origin. A phenotypic analysis of OT neuroblasts using a single-color piggyBac technique, showed that OT shared the molecular specification of striatal neurons. In addition to primary afferent input from the OB, the OT also receives a robust dopaminergic input from ventral tegmentum (Ikemoto, 2007). We used tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression as a proxy for dopaminergic innervation and showed that TH onset occurs at E13 and progressively increased until postnatal stages following an 'inside-out' pattern. Postnatally, we established the myelination in the OT occurring between P7 and P14, as shown with CNPase staining, and we characterized the cellular phenotypes populating the OT by immunohistochemistry. Collectively, this work provides the first detailed analysis of the developmental and maturation processes occurring in mouse OT, and demonstrates the striatal nature of the OT as part of the ventral striatum (vST).
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Martin-Lopez
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Christine Xu
- Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck Street, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Teresa Liberia
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Sarah J Meller
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; The Interdepartmental Neuroscience Graduate Program, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
| | - Charles A Greer
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA; The Interdepartmental Neuroscience Graduate Program, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520, USA.
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Martin-Lopez E, Meller SJ, Greer CA. Development of piriform cortex interhemispheric connections via the anterior commissure: progressive and regressive strategies. Brain Struct Funct 2018; 223:4067-4085. [PMID: 30141078 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-018-1741-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Accepted: 08/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The anterior commissure (AC) is a phylogenetically conserved inter-hemispheric connection found among vertebrates with bilateral symmetry. The AC connects predominantly olfactory areas but many aspects of its development and structure are unknown. To fill this gap, we investigated the embryonic and postnatal development of the AC by tracing axons with DiI and the piggyback transposon multicolor system. With this strategy, we show that axon growth during establishment of the AC follows a strictly regulated timeline of events that include waiting periods ("regressive strategies") as well as periods of active axon outgrowth ("progressive strategies"). We also provide evidence that these processes may be regulated in the midline via overexpression of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans. Additionally, we demonstrate that the ipsi- and contralateral innervation of piriform cortex occurs simultaneously. Morphologically, we found that 20% of axons were myelinated by postnatal day (P) 22, in a process that occurred fundamentally around P14. By immunohistochemistry, we described the presence of glial cells and two new subtypes of neurons: one expressing a calretinin (CR)-/MAP2+ phenotype, distributed homogeneously inside the AC; and the other expressing a CR+/MAP2+ phenotype that lies beneath the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. Our results are consistent with the notion that the AC follows a strictly regulated program during the embryonic and postnatal development similarly to other distal targeting axonal tracts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Martin-Lopez
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Sarah J Meller
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA
| | - Charles A Greer
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA. .,Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA. .,The Interdepartmental Neuroscience Graduate Program, Yale University School of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT, 06520, USA.
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