Efficient DNP at high fields and fast MAS with antenna-sensitized dinitroxides

Dynamic Nuclear Polarization (DNP) can significantly enhance the sensitivity of solid-state NMR. In DNP, microwave irradiation induces polarization transfer from unpaired electron spins to 1H nuclear spins via hyperfine couplings and spin-diffusion. The structure of the polarizing agents that host the electron spins is key for DNP efficiency. Currently, only a handful of structures perform well at very high magnetic fields (≥18.8 T), and enhancements are significantly lower than those obtained at lower fields. Here, we introduce a new series of water-soluble nitroxide biradicals with a scaffold augmented by dihydroxypropyl antenna chains that perform significantly better than previous dinitroxides at 18.8 T. The new radical M-TinyPol(OH)4 yields enhancement factors of ∼220 at 18.8 T and 60 kHz MAS, which is a nearly factor 2 larger than for the previous best performing dinitroxides. The performance is understood through 2H ESEEM measurements to probe solvent accessibility, supported by Molecular Dynamics simulations, and by experiments on deuterated samples. We find that the deuterated glycerol molecules in the matrix are located mainly in the second solvation shell of the NO bond, limiting access for protonated water molecules, and restricting spin diffusion pathways. This provides a rational understanding of why the dihydroxypropyl chains present in the best-performing structures are essential to deliver the polarization to the bulk solution.

Role of Protons in and around Strongly Coupled Nitroxide Biradicals for Cross-Effect Dynamic Nuclear Polarization

In magic angle spinning dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP), biradicals such as bis-nitroxides are used to hyperpolarize protons under microwave irradiation through the cross-effect mechanism. This mechanism relies on electron-electron spin interactions (dipolar coupling and exchange interaction) and electron-nuclear spin interactions (hyperfine coupling) to hyperpolarize the protons surrounding the biradical. This hyperpolarization is then transferred to the bulk sample via nuclear spin diffusion. However, the involvement of the protons in the biradical in the cross-effect DNP process has been under debate. In this work, we address this question by exploring the hyperpolarization pathways in and around bis-nitroxides. We demonstrate that for biradicals with strong electron-electron interactions, as in the case of the AsymPols, the protons on the biradical may not be necessary to quickly generate hyperpolarization. Instead, such biradicals can efficiently, and directly, polarize the surrounding protons of the solvent. The findings should impact the design of the next generation of biradicals.

Polarizing agents for efficient high field DNP solid-state NMR spectroscopy under magic-angle spinning: from design principles to formulation strategies

Dynamic Nuclear Polarization (DNP) has recently emerged as a cornerstone approach to enhance the sensitivity of solid-state NMR spectroscopy under Magic Angle Spinning (MAS), opening unprecedented analytical opportunities in chemistry and biology. DNP relies on a polarization transfer from unpaired electrons (present in endogenous or exogenous polarizing agents) to nearby nuclei. Developing and designing new polarizing sources for DNP solid-state NMR spectroscopy is currently an extremely active research field per se, that has recently led to significant breakthroughs and key achievements, in particular at high magnetic fields. This review describes recent developments in this area, highlighting key design principles that have been established over time and led to the introduction of increasingly more efficient polarizing sources. After a short introduction, Section 2 presents a brief history of solid-state DNP, highlighting the main polarization transfer schemes. The third section is devoted to the development of dinitroxide radicals, discussing the guidelines that were progressively established to design the fine-tuned molecular structures in use today. In Section 4, we describe recent efforts in developing hybrid radicals composed of a narrow EPR line radical covalently linked to a nitroxide, highlighting the parameters that modulate the DNP efficiency of these mixed structures. Section 5 reviews recent advances in the design of metal complexes suitable for DNP MAS NMR as exogenous electron sources. In parallel, current strategies that exploit metal ions as endogenous polarization sources are discussed. Section 6 briefly describes the recent introduction of mixed-valence radicals. In the last part, experimental aspects regarding sample formulation are reviewed to make best use of these polarizing agents in a broad panel of application fields.

An analytical treatment of electron spectral saturation for dynamic nuclear polarization NMR of rotating solids

Saturation of electron magnetization by microwave irradiation under magic-angle spinning (MAS) is studied theoretically. The saturation is essential for dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) enhancement of nuclear magnetic resonance signals. For a spin with a large g-anisotropy and a long T₁ relative to the rotor period, the sample rotation distributes saturation to the whole powder sample spectrum. Analytical expressions for the saturation and frequency profiles are obtained. For a pair of coupled electrons such as those in bis-nitroxides, which are commonly used for MAS DNP, an e_l-e_r model (where e_l and e_r stand for electrons on the left and the right, respectively, in their spectral positions) is introduced to simplify the analysis of a coupled two-spin system under MAS. For such a system, strong electron couplings exchange magnetization during dipolar/J rotor events when the two electron frequencies cross each other. The exchange is equivalent to a swap of the e_l and e_r electrons. This allows for the treatment of a coupled spin pair as two independent spins such that an analytical solution can be obtained for the steady-state magnetization and the difference between the two electrons. The theoretical study with its analytical result provides a simple physical picture of electron saturation under MAS and of how radical properties and experimental parameters affect cross-effect DNP. The effects of depolarization and the extension to more coupled electron spins are also discussed using this approach.

Hybrid quantum-classical simulations of magic angle spinning dynamic nuclear polarization in very large spin systems

Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance can be enhanced using unpaired electron spins with a method known as dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP). Fundamentally, DNP involves ensembles of thousands of spins, a scale that is difficult to match computationally. This scale prevents us from gaining a complete understanding of the spin dynamics and applying simulations to design sample formulations. We recently developed an ab initio model capable of calculating DNP enhancements in systems of up to ∼1000 nuclei; however, this scale is insufficient to accurately simulate the dependence of DNP enhancements on radical concentration or magic angle spinning (MAS) frequency. We build on this work by using ab initio simulations to train a hybrid model that makes use of a rate matrix to treat nuclear spin diffusion. We show that this model can reproduce the MAS rate and concentration dependence of DNP enhancements and build-up time constants. We then apply it to predict the DNP enhancements in core–shell metal-organic-framework nanoparticles and reveal new insights into the composition of the particles’ shells.

Dynamic nuclear polarization-enhanced, double-quantum filtered 13C-13C dipolar correlation spectroscopy of natural 13C abundant bone-tissue biomaterial

Here, we describe a method for obtaining a dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP)-enhanced double-quantum filtered (DQF) two-dimensional (2D) dipolar ¹³C-¹³C correlation spectra of bone-tissue material at natural ¹³C abundance. DNP-enhanced DQF 2D dipolar ¹³C-¹³C spectra were obtained using a few different mixing times of the dipolar-assisted rotational resonance (DARR) scheme and these spectra were compared to a conventional 2D through-space double-quantum (DQ)-single-quantum (SQ) correlation spectrum. While this scheme can only be used for an assignment purpose to reveal the carbon-carbon connectivity within a residue, the DQF ¹³C-¹³C dipolar correlation scheme introduced here can be used to obtain longer distance carbon-carbon constraints. A DQF pulse block is placed before the DARR mixing scheme for removing dominant ¹³C single-quantum (SQ) signals because these SQ ¹³C signals are overwhelmingly large compared to those ¹³C-¹³C dipolar cross-peaks generated and therefore saturate the dynamic range of the NMR detection. This approach exhibits strong enough 2D cross-peaks in a dipolar ¹³C-¹³C correlation spectrum and potentially provides pairwise ¹³C-¹³C dipolar constraints because the dipolar truncation effect as well as multi-step signal propagations involving a spin cluster that contains more than two spins can be ignored probabilistically. To obtain fast signal averaging, AsymPolPOK was used to provide a short ¹H DNP signal build-up time (1.3 s) and to expedite our MAS DNP NMR acquisitions while still maintaining a satisfactory DNP enhancement factor (ε = 50). Under long DARR mixing, a t₁-noise-like artifact was observed at a site that possesses a large chemical shift anisotropy (CSA) and a few different strategies to address this problem were discussed.

Efficient Dynamic Nuclear Polarization up to 230 K with Hybrid BDPA-Nitroxide Radicals at a High Magnetic Field

Pairing the spectral resolution provided by high magnetic fields at ambient temperature with the enhanced sensitivity offered by dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) is a major goal of modern solid-state NMR spectroscopy, which will allow one to unlock ever-challenging applications. This study demonstrates that, by combining HyTEK2, a hybrid BDPA-nitroxide biradical polarizing agent, with ortho-terphenyl (OTP), a rigid DNP matrix, enhancement factors as high as 65 can be obtained at 230 K, 40 kHz magic angle spinning (MAS), and 18.8 T. The temperature dependence of the DNP enhancement and its behavior around the glass transition temperature (T_g) of the matrix is investigated by variable-temperature EPR measurements of the electron relaxation properties and numerical simulations. A correlation is suggested between the decrease in enhancement at the passage of the T_g and the concomitant drop of both transverse electron relaxation times in the biradical.

Solid-State NMR Investigations of Extracellular Matrixes and Cell Walls of Algae, Bacteria, Fungi, and Plants

Extracellular matrixes (ECMs), such as the cell walls and biofilms, are important for supporting cell integrity and function and regulating intercellular communication. These biomaterials are also of significant interest to the production of biofuels and the development of antimicrobial treatment. Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR) and magic-angle spinning-dynamic nuclear polarization (MAS-DNP) are uniquely powerful for understanding the conformational structure, dynamical characteristics, and supramolecular assemblies of carbohydrates and other biomolecules in ECMs. This review highlights the recent high-resolution investigations of intact ECMs and native cells in many organisms spanning across plants, bacteria, fungi, and algae. We spotlight the structural principles identified in ECMs, discuss the current technical limitation and underexplored biochemical topics, and point out the promising opportunities enabled by the recent advances of the rapidly evolving ssNMR technology.

Numerical recipes for faster MAS-DNP simulations

Numerical simulations of Magic Angle Spinning Dynamic Nuclear Polarization (MAS-DNP) have transformed the way the DNP process is understood in rotating samples. In 2012, two methods were concomitantly developed to simulate small spin systems (< 4 spin-1/2). The development of new polarizing agents, including those containing metal centers with S > 1/2, makes it necessary to further expand the numerical tools with minimal approximations that will help rationalize the experimental observations and build approximate models. In this paper, three strategies developed in the past five years are presented: an adaptive integration scheme, a hybrid Hilbert/Liouville formalism, and a method to truncate the Liouville space basis for periodic Hamiltonian. Each of these methods enable time savings ranging from a factor of 3 to > 100. We illustrate the code performance by reporting for the first time the MAS-DNP field profiles for "AMUPol", in which the couplings to the nitrogen nuclei are explicitly considered, as well as Cross-Effect MAS-DNP field profiles with two electrons spin 5/2 interacting with a nuclear spin 1/2.

TOAC spin-labeled peptides tailored for DNP-NMR studies in lipid membrane environments

The benefit of combining in-cell solid-state dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) NMR and cryogenic temperatures is providing sufficient signal/noise and preservation of bacterial integrity via cryoprotection to enable in situ biophysical studies of antimicrobial peptides. The radical source required for DNP was delivered into cells by adding a nitroxide-tagged peptide based on the antimicrobial peptide maculatin 1.1 (Mac1). In this study, the structure, localization, and signal enhancement properties of a single (T-MacW) and double (T-T-MacW) TOAC (2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-N-oxyl-4-amino-4-carboxylic acid) spin-labeled Mac1 analogs were determined within micelles or lipid vesicles. The solution NMR and circular dichroism results showed that the spin-labeled peptides adopted helical structures in contact with micelles. The peptides behaved as an isolated radical source in the presence of multilamellar vesicles, and the electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) electron-electron distance for the doubly spin-labeled peptide was ∼1 nm. The strongest paramagnetic relaxation enhancement (PRE) was observed for the lipid NMR signals near the glycerol-carbonyl backbone and was stronger for the doubly spin-labeled peptide. Molecular dynamics simulation of the T-T-MacW radical source in phospholipid bilayers supported the EPR and PRE observations while providing further structural insights. Overall, the T-T-MacW peptide achieved better ¹³C and ¹⁵N signal NMR enhancements and ¹H spin-lattice T₁ relaxation than T-MacW.

Role of electron spin dynamics and coupling network in designing dynamic nuclear polarization

Dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) has emerged as a powerful sensitivity booster of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy for the characterization of biological solids, catalysts and other functional materials, but is yet to reach its full potential. DNP transfers the high polarization of electron spins to nuclear spins using microwave irradiation as a perturbation. A major focus in DNP research is to improve its efficiency at conditions germane to solid-state NMR, at high magnetic fields and fast magic-angle spinning. In this review, we highlight three key strategies towards designing DNP experiments: time-domain "smart" microwave manipulation to optimize and/or modulate electron spin polarization, EPR detection under operational DNP conditions to decipher the underlying electron spin dynamics, and quantum mechanical simulations of coupled electron spins to gain microscopic insights into the DNP mechanism. These strategies are aimed at understanding and modeling the properties of the electron spin dynamics and coupling network. The outcome of these strategies is expected to be key to developing next-generation polarizing agents and DNP methods.

The distance between g-tensors of nitroxide biradicals governs MAS-DNP performance: The case of the bTurea family

Bis-nitroxide radicals are common polarizing agents (PA), used to enhance the sensitivity of solid-state NMR experiments via Magic Angle Spinning Dynamic Nuclear Polarization (MAS-DNP). These biradicals can increase the proton spin polarization through the Cross-Effect (CE) mechanism, which requires PAs with at least two unpaired electrons. The relative orientation of the bis-nitroxide moieties is critical to ensure efficient polarization transfer. Recently, we have defined a new quantity, the distance between g-tensors, that correlates the relative orientation of the nitroxides with the ability to polarize the surrounding nuclei. Here we analyse experimentally and theoretically a series of biradicals belonging to the bTurea family, namely bcTol, AMUPol and bcTol-M. They differ by the degree of substitution on the urea bridge that connects the two nitroxides. Using quantitative simulations developed for moderate MAS frequencies, we show that these modifications mostly affect the relative orientations of the nitroxide, i.e. the length and distribution of the distance between the g-tensors, that in turn impacts both the steady state nuclear polarization/depolarization as well as the build-up times. The doubly substituted urea bridge favours a large distance between the g-tensors, which enables bcTol-M to provide ∊_on/off>200 at 14.1 T/600 MHz/395 GHz with build-up times of 3.8 s using a standard homogenous solution. The methodology described herein was used to show how the conformation of the spirocyclic rings flanking the nitroxide function in the recently described c- and o-HydrOPol affects the distance between the g-tensors and thereby polarization performance.

Solvent-free dynamic nuclear polarization enhancements in organically modified mesoporous silica

High-field dynamic nuclear polarization is a powerful tool for the structural characterization of species on the surface of porous materials or nanoparticles. For these studies the main source of polarization are radical-containing solutions which are added by post-synthesis impregnation of the sample. Although this strategy is very efficient for a wide variety of materials, the presence of the solvent may influence the chemistry of functional species of interest. Here we address the development of a comprehensive strategy for solvent-free DNP enhanced NMR characterization of functional (target) species on the surface of mesoporous silica (SBA-15). The strategy includes the partial functionalization of the silica surface with Carboxy-Proxyl nitroxide radicals and target Fmoc-Glycine functional groups. As a proof of principle, we have observed for the first time DNP signal enhancements, using the solvent-free approach, for 13C{1H} CPMAS signals corresponding to organic functionalities on the silica surface. DNP enhancements of up to 3.4 were observed for 13C{1H} CPMAS, corresponding to an experimental time save of about 12 times. This observation opens the possibility for the DNP-NMR study of surface functional groups without the need of a solvent, allowing, for example, the characterization of catalytic reactions occurring on the surface of mesoporous systems of interest. For 29Si with direct polarization NMR, up to 8-fold DNP enhancements were obtained. This 29Si signal enhancement is considerably higher than the obtained with similar approaches reported in literature. Finally, from DNP enhancement profiles we conclude that cross-effect is probably the dominant polarization transfer mechanism.

Postmodification via Thiol-Click Chemistry Yields Hydrophilic Trityl-Nitroxide Biradicals for Biomolecular High-Field Dynamic Nuclear Polarization

Dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) is a powerful method to enhance nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) signal intensities, enabling unprecedented applications in life and material science. An ultimate goal is to expand the use of DNP-enhanced solid-state NMR to ultrahigh magnetic fields where optimal spectral resolution and sensitivity are integrated. Trityl-nitroxide (TN) biradicals have attracted significant interest in high-field DNP, but their application to complex (bio)molecules has so far been limited. Here we report a novel postmodification strategy for synthesis of hydrophilic TN biradicals in order to improve their use in biomolecular applications. Initially, three TN biradicals (referred to as NATriPols 1-3) with amino-acid linkers were synthesized. EPR studies showed that the α-position of the amino-acid linkers is an ideal modification site for these biradicals since their electron-electron magnetic interactions are marginally affected by the substituents at this position. On the basis of this finding, we synthesized NATriPol-4 with pyridine disulfide appended at the α-position. Postmodification of NATriPol-4 via thiol-click chemistry resulted in various TN biradicals including hydrophilic NATriPol-5 in a quantitative manner. Interestingly, DNP enhancements at 18.8 T of NATriPols for ¹³C,¹⁵N-proline in a glycerol/water matrix are inversely correlated with their hydrophobicity. Importantly, applications of hydrophilic NATriPol-5 and NATriPol-3 to biomolecules including a globular soluble protein and a membrane targeting peptide reveal significantly improved performance compared to TEMTriPol-1 and AMUPol. Our work provides an efficient approach for one-step synthesis of new polarizing agents with tunable physicochemical properties, thus expediting optimization of new biradicals for biomolecular applications at ultrahigh magnetic fields.

Full-Scale Ab Initio Simulation of Magic-Angle-Spinning Dynamic Nuclear Polarization

Theoretical models aimed at describing magic-angle-spinning (MAS) dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) NMR have great potential in facilitating the in silico design of DNP polarizing agents and formulations. These models must typically face a trade-off between the accuracy of a strict quantum mechanical description and the need for using realistically large spin systems, for instance, using phenomenological models. Here, we show that the use of aggressive state-space restrictions and an optimization strategy allows full-scale ab initio MAS-DNP simulations of spin systems containing thousands of nuclei. Our simulations are shown to reproduce experimental DNP enhancements quantitatively, including their MAS rate dependence, for both frozen solutions and solid materials. They also reveal the importance of a previously unrecognized structural feature found in some polarizing agents that helps minimize the sensitivity losses imposed by the spin diffusion barrier.

Optimizing nitroxide biradicals for cross-effect MAS-DNP: the role of g-tensors' distance

Nitroxide biradicals are common polarizing agents used to enhance the sensitivity of solid-state NMR experiments via Magic Angle Spinning Dynamic Nuclear Polarization (MAS-DNP). These biradicals are used to increase the polarization of protons through the cross-effect mechanism, which requires two unpaired electrons with a Larmor frequency difference greater than that of the protons. From their early conception, the relative orientation of the nitroxide rings has been identified as a critical factor determining their MAS-DNP performance. However, the MAS leads to a complex DNP mechanism with time dependent energy level anti-crossings making it difficult to pinpoint the role of relative g-tensor orientation. In this article, a single parameter called "g-tensors' distance" is introduced to characterize the relative orientation's impact on the MAS-DNP field profiles. It is demonstrated for the first time how the g-tensors' distance determines the nuclear hyperpolarization and depolarization properties of a given biradical. This provides a new critical parameter that paves the way for more efficient bis-nitroxides for MAS-DNP.

Balancing dipolar and exchange coupling in biradicals to maximize cross effect dynamic nuclear polarization

Balancing dipolar and exchange coupling is essential for efficient Cross Effect DNP. This explains the complex performance of standard radicals (AMUPOL and HyTek) at high magnetic field and fast spinning.

Pulse-Shaped Dynamic Nuclear Polarization under Magic-Angle Spinning

Dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) under magic-angle spinning (MAS) is transforming the scope of solid-state NMR by enormous signal amplification through transfer of polarization from electron spins to nuclear spins. Contemporary MAS-DNP exclusively relies on monochromatic continuous-wave (CW) irradiation of the electron spin resonance. This limits control on electron spin dynamics, which renders the DNP process inefficient, especially at higher magnetic fields and non cryogenic temperatures. Pulse-shaped microwave irradiation of the electron spins is predicted to overcome these challenges but hitherto has never been implemented under MAS. Here, we debut pulse-shaped microwave irradiation using arbitrary-waveform generation (AWG) which allows controlled recruitment of a greater number of electron spins per unit time, favorable for MAS-DNP. Experiments and quantum mechanical simulations demonstrate that pulse-shaped DNP is superior to CW-DNP for mixed radical system, especially when the electron spin resonance is heterogeneously broadened and/or when its spin-lattice relaxation is fast compared to the MAS rotor period, opening new prospects for MAS-DNP.

Recent developments in MAS DNP-NMR of materials

Solid-state NMR spectroscopy is a powerful technique for the characterization of the atomic-level structure and dynamics of materials. Nevertheless, the use of this technique is often limited by its lack of sensitivity, which can prevent the observation of surfaces, defects or insensitive isotopes. Dynamic Nuclear Polarization (DNP) has been shown to improve by one to three orders of magnitude the sensitivity of NMR experiments on materials under Magic-Angle Spinning (MAS), at static magnetic field B₀ ≥ 5 T, conditions allowing for the acquisition of high-resolution spectra. The field of DNP-NMR spectroscopy of materials has undergone a rapid development in the last ten years, spurred notably by the availability of commercial DNP-NMR systems. We provide here an in-depth overview of MAS DNP-NMR studies of materials at high B₀ field. After a historical perspective of DNP of materials, we describe the DNP transfers under MAS, the transport of polarization by spin diffusion and the various contributions to the overall sensitivity of DNP-NMR experiments. We discuss the design of tailored polarizing agents and the sample preparation in the case of materials. We present the DNP-NMR hardware and the influence of key experimental parameters, such as microwave power, magnetic field, temperature and MAS frequency. We give an overview of the isotopes that have been detected by this technique, and the NMR methods that have been combined with DNP. Finally, we show how MAS DNP-NMR has been applied to gain new insights into the structure of organic, hybrid and inorganic materials with applications in fields, such as health, energy, catalysis, optoelectronics etc.

Biradical rotamer states tune electron J coupling and MAS dynamic nuclear polarization enhancement

Cross Effect (CE) Dynamic Nuclear Polarization (DNP) relies on the dipolar (D) and exchange (J) coupling interaction between two electron spins. Until recently only the electron spin D coupling was explicitly included in quantifying the DNP mechanism. Recent literature discusses the potential role of J coupling in DNP, but does not provide an account of the distribution and source of electron spin J coupling of commonly used biradicals in DNP. In this study, we quantified the distribution of electron spin J coupling in AMUPol and TOTAPol biradicals using a combination of continuous wave (CW) X-band electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) lineshape analysis in a series of solvents and at variable temperatures in solution - a state to be vitrified for DNP. We found that both radicals show a temperature dependent distribution of J couplings, and the source of this distribution to be conformational dynamics. To qualify this conformational dependence of J coupling in both molecules we carry out Broken Symmetry DFT calculations which show that the biradical rotamer distribution can account for a large distribution of J couplings, with the magnitude of J coupling directly depending on the relative orientation of the electron spin pair. We demonstrate that the electron spin J couplings in both AMUPol and TOTAPol span a much wider distribution than suggested in the literature. We affirm the importance of electron spin J coupling for DNP with density matrix simulations of DNP in Liouville space and under magic angle spinning, showcasing that a rotamer with high J coupling and optimum relative g-tensor orientation can significantly boost the DNP performance compared to random orientations of the electron spin pair. We conclude that moderate electron spin J coupling above a threshold value can facilitate DNP enhancements.

A biradical-tagged phospholipid as a polarizing agent for solid-state MAS Dynamic Nuclear Polarization NMR of membrane proteins

A novel Dynamic Nuclear Polarization (DNP) NMR polarizing agent ToSMTSL-PTE representing a phospholipid with a biradical TOTAPOL tethered to the polar head group has been synthesized, characterized, and employed to enhance solid-state Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (SSNMR) signal of a lipid-reconstituted integral membrane protein proteorhodopsin (PR). A matrix-free PR formulation for DNP improved the absolute sensitivity of NMR signal by a factor of ca. 4 compared to a conventional preparation with TOTAPOL dispersed in a glassy glycerol/water matrix. DNP enhancements measured at 400 MHz/263 GHz and 600 MHz/395 GHz showed a strong field dependence but remained moderate at both fields, and comparable to those obtained for PR covalently modified with ToSMTSL. Additional continuous wave (CW) X-band electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) experiments with ToSMTSL-PTE in solutions and in lipid bilayers revealed that an unfavorable conformational change of the linker connecting mononitroxides could be one of the reasons for moderate DNP enhancements. Further, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and CW EPR experiments indicated an inhomogeneous distribution and/or a possibility of a partial aggregation of ToSMTSL-PTE in DMPC:DMPA bilayers when the concentration of the polarizing agent was increased to 20 mol% to maximize the DNP enhancement. Thus, conformational changes and an inhomogeneous distribution of the lipid-based biradicals in lipid bilayers emerged as important factors to consider for further development of this matrix-free approach for DNP of membrane proteins.

Linear-scaling ab initio simulations of spin diffusion in rotating solids

We investigated the utility of locally restricting the basis sets involved in low-order correlations in Liouville space (LCL) calculations of spin diffusion. Using well-known classical models of spin diffusion, we describe a rationale for selecting the optimal basis set for such calculations. We then show that the use of these locally restricted basis sets provides the same computational accuracy as the full LCL set while reducing the computational time by several orders of magnitude. Speeding up the calculations also enables us to use higher maximum spin orders and increase the computational accuracy. Furthermore, unlike exact and full LCL calculations, locally restricted LCL calculations scale linearly with the system size and should thus enable the ab initio study of spin diffusion in spin systems containing several thousand spins.

Brute-force solvent suppression for DNP studies of powders at natural isotopic abundance

A method based on highly concentrated radical solutions is investigated for the suppression of the NMR signals arising from solvents that are usually used for dynamic nuclear polarization experiments. The presented method is suitable in the case of powders, which are impregnated with a radical-containing solution. It is also demonstrated that the intensity and the resolution of the signals due to the sample of interest is not affected by the high concentration of radicals. The method proposed here is therefore valuable when sensitivity is of the utmost importance, namely samples at natural isotopic abundance.

Improved waveguide coupling for 1.3 mm MAS DNP probes at 263 GHz

We consider the geometry of a radially irradiated microwave beam in MAS DNP NMR probes and its impact on DNP enhancement. Two related characteristic features are found to be relevant: (i) the focus of the microwave beam on the DNP MAS sample and (ii) the microwave magnetic field magnitude in the sample. We present a waveguide coupler setup that enables us to significantly improve beam focus and field magnitude in 1.3 mm MAS DNP probes at a microwave frequency of 263 GHz, which results in an increase of the DNP enhancement by a factor of 2 compared to previous standard hardware setups. We discuss the implications of improved coupling and its potential to enable cutting-edge applications, such as pulsed high-field DNP and the use of low-power solid-state microwave sources.

De novo prediction of cross-effect efficiency for magic angle spinning dynamic nuclear polarization

Magic angle spinning dynamic nuclear polarization (MAS-DNP) has become a key approach to boost the intrinsic low sensitivity of NMR in solids. This method relies on the use of both stable radicals as polarizing agents (PAs) and suitable high frequency microwave irradiation to hyperpolarize nuclei of interest. Relating PA chemical structure to DNP efficiency has been, and is still, a long-standing problem. The complexity of the polarization transfer mechanism has so far limited the impact of analytical derivation. However, recent numerical approaches have profoundly improved the basic understanding of the phenomenon and have now evolved to a point where they can be used to help design new PAs. In this work, the potential of advanced MAS-DNP simulations combined with DFT calculations and high-field EPR to qualitatively and quantitatively predict hyperpolarization efficiency of particular PAs is analyzed. This approach is demonstrated on AMUPol and TEKPol, two widely-used bis-nitroxide PAs. The results notably highlight how the PA structure and EPR characteristics affect the detailed shape of the DNP field profile. We also show that refined simulations of this profile using the orientation dependency of the electron spin-lattice relaxation times can be used to estimate the microwave B1 field experienced by the sample. Finally, we show how modelling the nuclear spin-lattice relaxation times of close and bulk nuclei while accounting for PA concentration allows for a prediction of DNP enhancement factors and hyperpolarization build-up times.

Large-scale ab initio simulations of MAS DNP enhancements using a Monte Carlo optimization strategy

Magic-angle-spinning (MAS) dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) has recently emerged as a powerful technology enabling otherwise unrealistic solid-state NMR experiments. The simulation of DNP processes which might, for example, aid in refining the experimental conditions or the design of better performing polarizing agents, is, however, plagued with significant challenges, often limiting the system size to only 3 spins. Here, we present the first approach to fully ab initio large-scale simulations of MAS DNP enhancements. The Landau-Zener equation is used to treat all interactions concerning electron spins, and the low-order correlations in the Liouville space method is used to accurately treat the spin diffusion, as well as its MAS speed dependence. As the propagator cannot be stored, a Monte Carlo optimization method is used to determine the steady-state enhancement factors. This new software is employed to investigate the MAS speed dependence of the enhancement factors in large spin systems where spin diffusion is of importance, as well as to investigate the impacts of solvent and polarizing agent deuteration on the performance of MAS DNP.

Conformation of bis-nitroxide polarizing agents by multi-frequency EPR spectroscopy

The chemical structure of polarizing agents critically determines the efficiency of dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP). For cross-effect DNP, biradicals are the polarizing agents of choice and the interaction and relative orientation of the two unpaired electrons should be optimal. Both parameters are affected by the molecular structure of the biradical in the frozen glassy matrix that is typically used for DNP/MAS NMR and likely differs from the structure observed with X-ray crystallography. We have determined the conformations of six bis-nitroxide polarizing agents, including the highly efficient AMUPol, in their DNP matrix with EPR spectroscopy at 9.7 GHz, 140 GHz, and 275 GHz. The multi-frequency approach in combination with an advanced fitting routine allows us to reliably extract the interaction and relative orientation of the nitroxide moieties. We compare the structures of six bis-nitroxides to their DNP performance at 500 MHz/330 GHz.

Computationally Assisted Design of Polarizing Agents for Dynamic Nuclear Polarization Enhanced NMR: The AsymPol Family

We introduce a new family of highly efficient polarizing agents for dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP)-enhanced nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) applications, composed of asymmetric bis-nitroxides, in which a piperidine-based radical and a pyrrolinoxyl or a proxyl radical are linked together. The design of the AsymPol family was guided by the use of advanced simulations that allow computation of the impact of the radical structure on DNP efficiency. These simulations suggested the use of a relatively short linker with the intention to generate a sizable intramolecular electron dipolar coupling/ J-exchange interaction, while avoiding parallel nitroxide orientations. The characteristics of AsymPol were further tuned, for instance with the addition of a conjugated carbon-carbon double bond in the 5-membered ring to improve the rigidity and provide a favorable relative orientation, the replacement of methyls by spirocyclohexanolyl groups to slow the electron spin relaxation, and the introduction of phosphate groups to yield highly water-soluble dopants. An in-depth experimental and theoretical study for two members of the family, AsymPol and AsymPolPOK, is presented here. We report substantial sensitivity gains at both 9.4 and 18.8 T. The robust efficiency of this new family is further demonstrated through high-resolution surface characterization of an important industrial catalyst using fast sample spinning at 18.8 T. This work highlights a new direction for polarizing agent design and the critical importance of computations in this process.

Continuous wave electron paramagnetic resonance of nitroxide biradicals in fluid solution

Nitroxide biradicals have been prepared with electron-electron spin-spin exchange interaction, J, ranging from weak to very strong. EPR spectra of these biradicals in fluid solution depend on the ratio of J to the nitrogen hyperfine coupling, A_N, and the rates of interconversion between conformations with different values of J. For relatively rigid biradicals EPR spectra can be simulated as the superposition of AB splitting patterns arising from different combinations of nitrogen nuclear spin states. For more flexible biradicals spectra can be simulated with a Liouville representation of the dynamics that interconvert conformations with different values of J on the EPR timescale. Analysis of spectra, factors that impact J, and examples of applications to chemical and biophysical problems are discussed.