Plasticity in Adult Avian Central Nervous System: Possible Relation Between Hormones, Learning, and Brain Repair

Putative Adult Neurogenesis in Old World Parrots: The Congo African Grey Parrot (Psittacus erithacus) and Timneh Grey Parrot (Psittacus timneh)

In the current study, we examined for the first time, the potential for adult neurogenesis throughout the brain of the Congo African grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus) and Timneh grey parrot (Psittacus timneh) using immunohistochemistry for the endogenous markers proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), which labels proliferating cells, and doublecortin (DCX), which stains immature and migrating neurons. A similar distribution of PCNA and DCX immunoreactivity was found throughout the brain of the Congo African grey and Timneh grey parrots, but minor differences were also observed. In both species of parrots, PCNA and DCX immunoreactivity was observed in the olfactory bulbs, subventricular zone of the lateral wall of the lateral ventricle, telencephalic subdivisions of the pallium and subpallium, diencephalon, mesencephalon and the rhombencephalon. The olfactory bulb and telencephalic subdivisions exhibited a higher density of both PCNA and DCX immunoreactive cells than any other brain region. DCX immunoreactive staining was stronger in the telencephalon than in the subtelencephalic structures. There was evidence of proliferative hot spots in the dorsal and ventral poles of the lateral ventricle in the Congo African grey parrots at rostral levels, whereas only the dorsal accumulation of proliferating cells was observed in the Timneh grey parrot. In most pallial regions the density of PCNA and DCX stained cells increased from rostral to caudal levels with the densest staining in the nidopallium caudolaterale (NCL). The widespread distribution of PCNA and DCX in the brains of both parrot species suggest the importance of adult neurogenesis and neuronal plasticity during learning and adaptation to external environmental variations.

Plasticity of the Adult Avian Song Control System

There is extensive plasticity of the song behavior of birds and the neuroendocrine circuit that regulates this behavior in adulthood. One of the most pronounced examples of plasticity, found in every species of seasonally breeding bird examined, is the occurrence of large seasonal changes in the size of song control nuclei and in their cellular attributes. This seasonal plasticity of the song circuits is primarily regulated by changes in the secretion and metabolism of gonadal testosterone (T). Both androgenic and estrogenic sex steroids contribute to seasonal growth of the song system. These steroids act directly on the forebrain song nucleus HVC, which then stimulates growth of its efferent target nuclei transsynaptically. Seasonal growth and regression of the song circuits occur rapidly and sequentially following changes in circulating T and its metabolites. As the neural song circuits change across seasons, there are changes in different aspects of song behavior, including the structural stereotypy of songs, their duration, and the rate of production. The burden of evidence supports a model in which changes in song behavior are a consequence rather than a cause of the changes in the song circuits of the brain. Seasonal plasticity of the song system may have evolved as an adaptation to reduce the energetic demands imposed by these regions of the brain outside the breeding season, when the use of song for mate attraction and territorial defense is reduced or absent. The synaptic plasticity that accompanies seasonal changes in the song system may have acted as a preadaptation that enabled the evolution of adult song learning in some species of birds.

Song learning: the interface between behaviour and neuroethology

The high degree of developmental plasticity displayed by the songs of oscine birds makes them appropriate subjects for research on the etiology and neurobiology of vocal learning. Strong individual differences and learned local dialects are common. The readiness to acquire new songs appears to persist throughout life in some species and is restricted to relatively short sensitive periods in others. Learning can occur with remarkably few exposures to song. Mimicry of other species occurs but, given a choice, there is a tendency to favour conspecific songs. Evidence is presented for two kinds of vocal learning, one 'memory-based', the other 'action-based.' Subsong and 'plastic song' phases of motor development appear to be obligatory steps in the ontogeny of learned songs. A case is made that acquisition and production should be viewed as distinct phenomena with different physiological correlates. Research on behavioural development is closely associated with studies of the physiology of development. The two are mutually synergistic, and the synergism is well displayed in research on song learning in birds. This review of some of the characteristics of avian vocal learning as derived from behavioural studies, indicates lacunae in our knowledge about the ethology of song learning, and suggests how the comparative study of vocal development can pave the way for new insights into the underlying neurobiology.