In Situ Generation of Active Molybdenum Octahedral Clusters for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Production from Water

Optoelectronic properties of octahedral molybdenum cluster-based materials at a single crystal level

Octahedral molybdenum (Mo6) clusters constitute suitable building blocks for the design of promising single crystal materials in the field of optoelectronics. Here, we prepared single crystals composed of hydroxo Mo6X8 (X = Br, Cl) cluster complexes interconnected by H-bonding interactions with water molecules and protons. The optoelectronic responses and the absorption and emission spectra of these cluster-based single crystals were acquired upon light irradiation, and they show dependency on the nature of the halogens, with the brominated cluster being the most conductive. A fast photoelectrical response was recorded and it showed remarkable stability after multiple illumination on/off cycles. The results obtained provide relevant information for the development of photonic and optoelectronic devices, sensors and photocatalysts.

Octahedral Tantalum Bromide Clusters as Catalysts for Light-Driven Hydrogen Evolution

The development of an efficient hydrogen generation strategy from aqueous protons using sunlight is a current challenge aimed at the production of low-cost, easily accessible, renewable molecular hydrogen. For achieving this goal, non-noble metal containing and highly active catalysts for the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) are desirable. Octahedral tantalum halide clusters {Ta6(μ-X)12}2+ (X = halogen) represent an emerging class of such HER photocatalysts. In this work, the photocatalytic properties of octahedral aqua tantalum bromide clusters toward HER and in acid and homogeneous aqueous conditions were investigated. The [{Ta6Bri12}Bra2(H2O)a4]·4H2O (i = inner ligand; a = apical ligand) compound is revealed to be an efficient precatalyst in acid (HBr) conditions and with methanol as the sacrificial agent. A response surface methodology (RSM) study was applied for the optimization of the HER conditions, considering the concentrations of both additives (methanol and HBr) as independent variables. An optimal H2 production of 11 mmol·g-1 (TON = 25) was achieved, which displays exceptional catalytic properties compared to regular Ta-based materials. The aqua tantalum bromide clusters assist in the photocatalytic hydrogen generation in agreement with energy-conversion schemes, and plausible active catalytic species and a reaction mechanism were proposed from computational and experimental perspectives.

Graphene Oxide Sheets Decorated with Octahedral Molybdenum Cluster Complexes for Enhanced Photoinactivation of Staphylococcus aureus

The emergence of multidrug-resistant microbial pathogens poses a significant threat, severely limiting the options for effective antibiotic therapy. This challenge can be overcome through the photoinactivation of pathogenic bacteria using materials generating reactive oxygen species upon exposure to visible light. These species target vital components of living cells, significantly reducing the likelihood of resistance development by the targeted pathogens. In our research, we have developed a nanocomposite material consisting of an aqueous colloidal suspension of graphene oxide sheets adorned with nanoaggregates of octahedral molybdenum cluster complexes. The negative charge of the graphene oxide and the positive charge of the nanoaggregates promoted their electrostatic interaction in aqueous medium and close cohesion between the colloids. Upon illumination with blue light, the colloidal system exerted a potent antibacterial effect against planktonic cultures of Staphylococcus aureus largely surpassing the individual contributions of the components. The underlying mechanism behind this phenomenon lies in the photoinduced electron transfer from the nanoaggregates of the cluster complexes to the graphene oxide sheets, which triggers the generation of reactive oxygen species. Thus, leveraging the unique properties of graphene oxide and light-harvesting octahedral molybdenum cluster complexes can open more effective and resilient antibacterial strategies.

Preparation, photoluminescence and excited state properties of the homoleptic cluster cation [(W6I8)(CH3CN)6]4

Solvated tungsten iodide cluster compounds are presented with the homoleptic cluster cation [(W₆I₈)(CH₃CN)₆]⁴⁺ and the heteroleptic [(W₆I₈)I(CH₃CN)₅]³⁺, synthesized from W₆I₂₂ in acetonitrile. Crystal structures were solved and refined on deep red single-crystals of [(W₆I₈)(CH₃CN)₆](I₃)(BF₄)₃·H₂O, [(W₆I₈)I(CH₃CN)₅](I₃)₂(BF₄), and on a yellow single-crystal of [W₆I₈(CH₃CN)₆](BF₄)₄·2(CH₃CN) on the basis of X-ray diffraction data. The structure of the homoleptic [(W₆I₈)(CH₃CN)₆]⁴⁺ cluster is based on the octahedral [W₆I₈]⁴⁺ tungsten iodide cluster core, coordinated by six apical acetonitrile ligands. The electron localisation function of [(W₆I₈)(CH₃CN)₆]⁴⁺ is calculated and solid-state photoluminescence and its temperature depedence are reported. Additionally, photoluminescence and transient absorption measurements in acetonitrile are shown. Results of the obtained data are compared to compounds containing [(M₆I₈)I₆]^2- and [(M₆I₈)L₆]^2- (M = Mo or W; L = ligand) clusters.

Octahedral Molybdenum Iodide Clusters Supported on Graphene for Resistive and Optical Gas Sensing

This paper reports for the first time a gas-sensitive nanohybrid based on octahedral molybdenum iodide clusters supported on graphene flakes (Mo₆@Graphene). The possibility of integrating this material into two different transducing schemes for gas sensing is proposed since the nanomaterial changes both its electrical resistivity and optical properties when exposed to gases and at room temperature. Particularly, when implemented in a chemoresistive device, the Mo₆@Graphene hybrid showed an outstanding sensing performance toward NO₂, revealing a limit of quantification of about 10 ppb and excellent response repeatability (0.9% of relative error). While the Mo₆@Graphene chemoresistor was almost insensitive to NH₃, the use of an optical transduction scheme (changes in photoluminescence) provided an outstanding detection of NH₃ even for a low loading of Mo₆. Nevertheless, the photoluminescence was not affected by the presence of NO₂. In addition, the hybrid material revealed high stability of its gas sensing properties over time and under ambient moisture. Computational chemistry calculations were performed to better understand these results, and plausible sensing mechanisms were presented accordingly. These results pave the way to develop a new generation of multi-parameter sensors in which electronic and optical interrogation techniques can be implemented simultaneously, advancing toward the realization of highly selective and orthogonal gas sensing.

From Solid-State Cluster Compounds to Functional PMMA-Based Composites with UV and NIR Blocking Properties, and Tuned Hues

New nanocomposite materials with UV-NIR blocking properties and hues ranging from green to brown were prepared by integrating inorganic tantalum octahedral cluster building blocks prepared via solid-state chemistry in a PMMA matrix. After the synthesis by the solid-state chemical reaction of the K₄[{Ta₆Brⁱ₁₂}Br^a₆] ternary halide, built-up from [{Ta₆Brⁱ₁₂}Br^a₆]^4- anionic building blocks, and potassium cations, the potassium cations were replaced by functional organic cations (Kat⁺) bearing a methacrylate function. The resulting intermediate, (Kat)₂[{Ta₆Brⁱ₁₂}Br^a₆], was then incorporated homogeneously by copolymerization with MMA into transparent PMMA matrices to form a brown transparent hybrid composite Ta@PMMA_brown. The color of the composites was tuned by controlling the charge and consequently the oxidation state of the cluster building block. Ta@PMMA_green was obtained through the two-electron reduction of the [{Ta₆Brⁱ₁₂}Br^a₆]^2- building blocks from Ta@PMMA_brown in solution. Indeed, the control of the oxidation state of the Ta₆ cluster inorganic building blocks occurred inside the copolymer, which not only allowed the tuning of the optical properties of the composite in the visible region but also allowed the tuning of its UV and NIR blocking properties.

Nanostructured Hybrids Based on Tantalum Bromide Octahedral Clusters and Graphene Oxide for Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution

The generation of hydrogen (H₂) using sunlight has become an essential energy alternative for decarbonization. The need for functional nanohybrid materials based on photo- and electroactive materials and accessible raw materials is high in the field of solar fuels. To reach this goal, single-step synthesis of {Ta₆Brⁱ₁₂}@GO (GO = graphene oxide) nanohybrids was developed by immobilization of [{Ta₆Brⁱ₁₂}Br^a₂(H₂O)^a₄]·4H₂O (i = inner and a = apical positions of the Ta₆ octahedron) on GO nanosheets by taking the advantage of the easy ligand exchange of the apical cluster ligands with the oxygen functionalities of GO. The nanohybrids were characterized by spectroscopic, analytical, and morphological techniques. The hybrid formation enhances the yield of photocatalytic H₂ from water with respect to their precursors and this is without the presence of precious metals. This enhancement is attributed to the optimal cluster loading onto the GO support and the crucial role of GO in the electron transfer from Ta₆ clusters into GO sheets, thus suppressing the charge recombination. In view of the simplicity and versatility of the designed photocatalytic system, octahedral tantalum clusters are promising candidates to develop new and environmentally friendly photocatalysts for H₂ evolution.

A review on functional nanoarchitectonics nanocomposites based on octahedral metal atom clusters (Nb6, Mo6, Ta6, W6, Re6): inorganic 0D and 2D powders and films

This review is dedicated to various functional nanoarchitectonic nanocomposites based on molecular octahedral metal atom clusters (Nb₆, Mo₆, Ta₆, W₆, Re₆). Powder and film nanocomposites with two-dimensional, one-dimensional and zero-dimensional morphologies are presented, as well as film matrices from organic polymers to inorganic layered oxides. The high potential and synergetic effects of these nanocomposites for biotechnology applications, photovoltaic, solar control, catalytic, photonic and sensor applications are demonstrated. This review also provides a basic level of understanding how nanocomposites are characterized and processed using different techniques and methods. The main objective of this review would be to provide guiding significance for the design of new high-performance nanocomposites based on transition metal atom clusters.

Evidence of the Ambipolar Behavior of Mo6 Cluster Iodides in All-Inorganic Solar Cells: A New Example of Nanoarchitectonic Concept

Ambipolar materials such as carbon nanotubes, graphene, or 2D transition metal chalcogenides are very attractive for a large range of applications, namely, light-emitting transistors, logic circuits, gas sensors, flash memories, and solar cells. In this work, it is shown that the nanoarchitectonics of inorganic Mo₆ cluster-based iodides enable to form thin films exhibiting photophysical properties that enable their classification as new members of the restricted family of ambipolar materials. Thus, the electronic properties of the ternary iodide Cs₂[{Mo₆I₈ⁱ}I₆^a] and those of thin films of the aqua-complex-based compound [{Mo₆I₈ⁱ}I₄^a(H₂O)₂^a]·xH₂O were investigated through an in-depth photoelectrochemical study. Once hole/electron pairs are created, the holes and electrons turn to be transported simultaneously in opposite directions, and their lifetimes exhibit similar values. The ambipolar properties were demonstrated via the integration of [{Mo₆I₈ⁱ}I₄^a(H₂O)₂^a]·xH₂O as light harvesters in an all-solid solar cell. A significant photoresponse with a typical diode characteristic clearly provides evidence of the simultaneous transfer and transport of holes and electrons within the [{Mo₆I₈ⁱ}I₄^a(H₂O)₂^a]·xH₂O layer. The ambipolar behavior results, on the one hand, from the confinement of electrons imposed by the nanometric size of the molecular metal clusters and, on the other hand, from the poor electronic interactions between clusters in the solid state. Such molecular structure-based layers lead naturally to an intrinsic semiconducting behavior.

Molybdenum-Containing Metalloenzymes and Synthetic Catalysts for Conversion of Small Molecules

The energy deficiency and environmental problems have motivated researchers to develop energy conversion systems into a sustainable pathway, and the development of catalysts holds the center of the research endeavors. Natural catalysts such as metalloenzymes have maintained energy cycles on Earth, thus proving themselves the optimal catalysts. In the previous research results, the structural and functional analogs of enzymes and nano-sized electrocatalysts have shown promising activities in energy conversion reactions. Mo ion plays essential roles in natural and artificial catalysts, and the unique electrochemical properties render its versatile utilization as an electrocatalyst. In this review paper, we show the current understandings of the Mo-enzyme active sites and the recent advances in the synthesis of Mo-catalysts aiming for high-performing catalysts.

Controlling the selectivity of bimetallic platinum–ruthenium nanoparticles supported on N-doped graphene by adjusting their metal composition

Bimetallic platinum–ruthenium nanoparticles supported on N-doped graphene as chemoselective hydrogenation catalysts.

Cyanide Complexes Based on {Mo6I8}4+ and {W6I8}4+ Cluster Cores

Compounds based on new cyanide cluster anions [{Mo₆I₈}(CN)₆]^2–, trans-[{Mo₆I₈}(CN)₄(MeO)₂]^2– and trans-[{W₆I₈}(CN)₂(MeO)₄]²⁻ were synthesized using mechanochemical or solvothermal synthesis. The crystal and electronic structures as well as spectroscopic properties of the anions were investigated. It was found that the new compounds exhibit red luminescence upon excitation by UV light in the solid state and solutions, as other cluster complexes based on {Mo₆I₈}⁴⁺ and {W₆I₈}⁴⁺ cores do. The compounds can be recrystallized from aqueous methanol solutions; besides this, it was shown using NMR and UV-Vis spectroscopy that anions did not undergo hydrolysis in the solutions for a long time. These facts indicate that hydrolytic stabilization of {Mo₆I₈} and {W₆I₈} cluster cores can be achieved by coordination of cyanide ligands.

Enhanced Photocatalytic Activity and Stability in Hydrogen Evolution of Mo6 Iodide Clusters Supported on Graphene Oxide

Catalytic properties of the cluster compound (TBA)₂[Mo₆Iⁱ₈(O₂CCH₃)^a₆] (TBA = tetrabutylammonium) and a new hybrid material (TBA)₂Mo₆Iⁱ₈@GO (GO = graphene oxide) in water photoreduction into molecular hydrogen were investigated. New hybrid material (TBA)₂Mo₆Iⁱ₈@GO was prepared by coordinative immobilization of the (TBA)₂[Mo₆Iⁱ₈(O₂CCH₃)^a₆] onto GO sheets and characterized by spectroscopic, analytical, and morphological techniques. Liquid and, for the first time, gas phase conditions were chosen for catalytic experiments under UV–Vis irradiation. In liquid water, optimal H₂ production yields were obtained after using (TBA)₂[Mo₆Iⁱ₈(O₂CCH₃)^a₆] and (TBA)₂Mo₆Iⁱ₈@GO) catalysts after 5 h of irradiation of liquid water. Despite these remarkable catalytic performances, “liquid-phase” catalytic systems have serious drawbacks: the cluster anion evolves to less active cluster species with partial hydrolytic decomposition, and the nanocomposite completely decays in the process. Vapor water photoreduction showed lower catalytic performance but offers more advantages in terms of cluster stability, even after longer radiation exposure times and recyclability of both catalysts. The turnover frequency (TOF) of (TBA)₂Mo₆Iⁱ₈@GO is three times higher than that of the microcrystalline (TBA)₂[Mo₆Iⁱ₈(O₂CCH₃)^a₆], in agreement with the better accessibility of catalytic cluster sites for water molecules in the gas phase. This bodes well for the possibility of creating {Mo₆I₈}⁴⁺-based materials as catalysts in hydrogen production technology from water vapor.

Photodynamic properties of tungsten iodide clusters incorporated into silicone: A2[M6I8L6]@silicone

The light-induced antibacterial and antifungal properties of A₂[M₆I₈L₆] with M = Mo and W, A = organic cation, L = ligand have been studied. The photoactive compounds (TBA)₂[W₆I₈(C₇H₇SO₃)₆] and (TBA)₂[W₆I₈(COOCF₃)₆] have been incorporated into a permeable silicone matrix and were measured for their application in the decomposition of multi-resistant bioactive species (hospital germs) such as S. aureus and P. aeruginosa as well as fungi. In addition, we present a new high volume synthesis route for these types of cluster compounds departing from the soluble compound W₆I₂₂.

The light-induced antibacterial and antifungal properties of A₂[M₆I₈L₆] with M = Mo and W, A = organic cation, L = ligand have been studied.

The Ouzo effect to selectively assemble molybdenum clusters into nanomarbles or nanocapsules with increased HER activity

Molybdenum clusters assemble spontaneously into nanocapsules or nanomarbles depending on their solubility in a water/THF mixture.

Low dimensional solids based on Mo6 cluster cyanides and Mn2+, Mn3+ or Cd2+ metal ions: crystal chemistry, magnetic and optical properties

Five new cluster compounds based on [Mo₆Brⁱ₈(CN)^a₆]²⁻ and [Mo₆Brⁱ₆Qⁱ₂(CN)^a₆]ⁿ⁻ (Q = S, Se, n = 3, 4) cluster units have been synthesized and characterized.

Luminescent coordination polymers based on Ca2+ and octahedral cluster anions [{M6Cli8}Cla6]2− (M = Mo, W): synthesis and thermal stability studies

Preparation of 1D coordination polymers based on luminescent hexanuclear cluster complexes.

Superior performance of macroporous over gel type polystyrene as a support for the development of photo-bactericidal materials

Macroporous polystyrene resins are best suited than gel-type polymers to develop supported photosensitizers for the generation of bactericidal singlet oxygen.