Fourier transformed spectral bio-imaging for studying the intracellular fate of liposomes

Spontaneous Vesiculation and pH-Induced Disassembly of a Lysosomotropic Detergent: Impacts on Lysosomotropism and Lysosomal Delivery

Lysosomotropic detergents (LDs) selectively rupture lysosomal membranes through mechanisms that have yet to be characterized. A consensus view, currently, holds that LDs, which are weakly basic, diffuse across cellular membranes as monomers in an uncharged state, and via protonation in the acidic lysosomal compartment, they become trapped, accumulate, and subsequently solubilize the membrane and induce lysosomal membrane permeabilization. Here we demonstrate that the lysosomotropic detergent O-methyl-serine dodecylamide hydrochloride (MSDH) spontaneously assembles into vesicles at, and above, cytosolic pH, and that the vesicles disassemble as the pH reaches 6.4 or lower. The aggregation commences at concentrations below the range of those used in cell studies. Assembly and disassembly of the vesicles was studied via dynamic light scattering, zeta potential measurements, cryo-TEM, and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy and was found to be reversible via control of the pH. Aggregation of MSDH into closed vesicles under cytosolic conditions is at variance with the commonly held view of LD behavior, and we propose that endocytotic pathways should be considered as possible routes of LD entry into lysosomes. We further demonstrate that MSDH vesicles can be loaded with fluorophores via a solution transition from low to high pH, for subsequent release when the pH is lowered again. The ability to encapsulate molecular cargo into MSDH vesicles together with its ability to disaggregate at low pH and to permeabilize the lysosomal membrane presents an intriguing possibility to use MSDH as a delivery system.

Targeted nanoparticles in mitochondrial medicine

Mitochondria, the so-called 'energy factory of cells' not only produce energy but also contribute immensely in cellular mortality management. Mitochondrial dysfunctions result in various diseases including but not limited to cancer, atherosclerosis, and neurodegenerative diseases. In the recent years, targeting mitochondria emerged as an attractive strategy to control mitochondrial dysfunction-related diseases. Despite the desire to direct therapeutics to the mitochondria, the actual task is more difficult due to the highly complex nature of the mitochondria. The potential benefits of integrating nanomaterials with properties such as biodegradability, magnetization, and fluorescence into a single object of nanoscale dimensions can lead to the development of hybrid nanomedical platforms for targeting therapeutics to the mitochondria. Only a handful of nanoparticles based on metal oxides, gold nanoparticles, dendrons, carbon nanotubes, and liposomes were recently engineered to target mitochondria. Most of these materials face tremendous challenges when administered in vivo due to their limited biocompatibility. Biodegradable polymeric nanoparticles emerged as eminent candidates for effective drug delivery. In this review, we highlight the current advancements in the development of biodegradable nanoparticle platforms as effective targeting tools for mitochondrial medicine.

Lysosome-targeted octadecyl-rhodamine B-liposomes enhance lysosomal accumulation of glucocerebrosidase in Gaucher's cells in vitro

AIM

We hypothesized that liposomes modified with lysosomotropic octadecyl-rhodamine B (Rh) and loaded with therapeutic glucocerebroside velaglucerase alfa (VPRIV™) will improve lysosomal delivery of the enzyme into Gaucher's cells.

MATERIALS & METHODS

Confocal microscopy and flow cytometry were used to evaluate the ability of Rh-modified liposomes loaded with VPRIV to improve the lysosomal targeting in monocyte-derived macrophages and Gaucher's fibroblasts.

RESULTS

Confocal microscopy demonstrated that Rh-modified liposomes localized primarily in the lysosomes. As confirmed by flow cytometry using specific substrate 5-(pentafluorobenzoylamino)fluorescein diglucoside, intralysosomal accumulation of VPRIV in the cells treated with Rh-modified liposomes was significantly increased (up to 68%) relative to the cells treated with plain liposomes or free VPRIV.

CONCLUSION

Rh-modified lysosomotropic liposomes can improve lysosomal accumulation of liposomal enzymes both in nonphagocytic Gaucher's fibroblasts and phagocytic monocyte-derived macrophages.

Screening and optimization of ligand conjugates for lysosomal targeting

The use of lysosome-targeted liposomes may significantly improve the delivery of therapeutic enzymes and chaperones into lysosomes for the treatment of lysosomal storage disorders. The aim of this research was to synthesize new potentially lysosomotropic ligands on a base of Neutral Red and rhodamine B and to study their ability to enhance specific lysosomal delivery of surface-modified liposomes loaded with a model compound, fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran (FD). The delivery of these liposomes and their content to lysosomes in HeLa cells was investigated by confocal immunofluorescent microscopy, subcellular fractionation, and flow cytometry. Confocal microscopy demonstrated that liposomes modified with derivatives of rhodamine B provide a good rate of colocalization with the specific lysosomal markers. The comparison of fluorescence of FD in lysosomes isolated by subcellular fractionation also showed that the efficiency of lysosomal delivery of the liposomal load by liposomes modified with some of synthesized ligands was significantly higher compared to that with plain liposomes. These results were additionally confirmed by flow cytometry of the intact cells treated with liposomes loaded with 5-dodecanoylaminofluorescein di-β-d-galactopyranoside, a specific substrate for the intralysosomal β-galactosidase, using a number of cell lines, including macrophages with induced phenotype of lysosomal enzyme deficiency; two of the synthesized ligands-rhodamine B DSPE-PEG(2k)-amide and 6-(3-(DSPE-PEG(2k))-thioureido) rhodamine B-demonstrated enhanced lysosomal delivery, in some cases, higher than that for commercially available rhodamine B octadecyl ester, with the best results (the enhancement of the lysosomal delivery up to 75% greater in comparison to plain liposomes) shown for the cells with induced lysosomal enzyme deficiency phenotype. Use of liposomes modified with rhodamine B derivatives may be advantageous for the development of drug delivery systems for the treatment of lysosome-associated disorders.

Targeting of lysosomes by liposomes modified with octadecyl-rhodamine B

The use of lysosome-targeted liposomes may significantly improve a delivery of therapeutic enzymes into lysosomes for the treatment of lysosome-associated diseases. The aim of this research was to achieve a specific intracellular targeting of lysosomes, by using liposomes modified with the lysosomotropic octadecyl-rhodamine B (RhB) and loaded with a model compound, fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-dextran (FD). Plain and RhB-modified liposomes were prepared by hydration of lipid films and loaded with FD or with 5-dodecanoylaminofluorescein di-β-d-galactopyranoside (C(12)FDG), a specific substrate for the intralysosomal β-galactosidase. The delivery of these liposomes and their content to lysosomes in HeLa cells was investigated by confocal microscopy, flow cytometry, and subcellular fractionation. Confocal microscopy demonstrated that RhB-liposomes co-localize well with the specific lysosomal markers, unlike plain liposomes. The comparison of the FITC fluorescence of the lysosomes isolated by subcellular fractionation also showed that the efficiency of FD delivery into lysosomes by RhB-modified liposomes was significantly higher compared with plain liposomes. These results were additionally confirmed by the flow cytometry of the intact cells treated with C(12)FDG-loaded liposomes that also demonstrated increased lysosomal targeting by RhB-modified liposomes. The modification of the liposomal surface with a lysosomotropic ligand, such as octadecyl-RhB, can significantly increase the delivery of liposomal loads to lysosomes.

Spectral bio-imaging and confocal imaging of the intracellular distribution of lipoplexes

The intracellular distribution of nanoparticular drug delivery systems is very complex, but its investigation yields high potential for further development and optimization of these systems.In the following chapter, we introduce the application of fluorescent imaging techniques in order to highlight uptake and cellular processing of nanoparticular drug delivery systems (e.g., liposomal drug delivery systems). We selected a combination of different protocols for the staining of the most important endocytic compartments and organelles. The presented imaging systems are appropriate to detect liposomal drug delivery systems localized in these cellular structures.

The role of the C-terminus for functional heteromerization of the plant channel KDC1

Voltage-gated potassium channels are formed by the assembly of four identical (homotetramer) or different (heterotetramer) subunits. Tetramerization of plant potassium channels involves the C-terminus of the protein. We investigated the role of the C-terminus of KDC1, a Shaker-like inward-rectifying K(+) channel that does not form functional homomeric channels, but participates in the formation of heteromeric complexes with other potassium alpha-subunits when expressed in Xenopus oocytes. The interaction of KDC1 with KAT1 was investigated using the yeast two-hybrid system, fluorescence and electrophysiological studies. We found that the KDC1-EGFP fusion protein is not targeted to the plasma membrane of Xenopus oocytes unless it is coexpressed with KAT1. Deletion mutants revealed that the KDC1 C-terminus is involved in heteromerization. Two domains of the C-terminus, the region downstream the putative cyclic nucleotide binding domain and the distal part of the C-terminus called K(HA) domain, contributed to a different extent to channel assembly. Whereas the first interacting region of the C-terminus was necessary for channel heteromerization, the removal of the distal K(HA) domain decreased but did not abolish the formation of heteromeric complexes. Similar results were obtained when coexpressing KDC1 with the KAT1-homolog KDC2 from carrots, thus indicating the physiological significance of the KAT1/KDC1 characterization. Electrophysiological experiments showed furthermore that the heteromerization capacity of KDC1 was negatively influenced by the presence of the enhanced green fluorescence protein fusion.

Cellular uptake of cationic polymer-DNA complexes via caveolae plays a pivotal role in gene transfection in COS-7 cells

PURPOSE

Knowledge about the uptake mechanism and subsequent intracellular routing of non-viral gene delivery systems is important for the development of more efficient carriers. In this study we compared two established cationic polymers pDMAEMA and PEI with regard to their transfection efficiency and mechanism of cellular uptake.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The effects of several inhibitors of particular cellular uptake routes on the uptake of polyplexes and subsequent gene expression in COS-7 cells were investigated using FACS and transfection. Moreover, cellular localization of fluorescently labeled polyplexes was assessed by spectral fluorescence microscopy.

RESULTS

Both pDMAEMA- and PEI-complexed DNA showed colocalization with fluorescently-labeled transferrin and cholera toxin after internalization by COS-7 cells, which indicates uptake via the clathrin- and caveolae-dependent pathways. Blocking either routes of uptake with specific inhibitors only resulted in a marginal decrease in polyplex uptake, which may suggest that uptake routes of polyplexes are interchangeable. Despite the marginal effect of inhibitors on polyplex internalization, blocking the caveolae-mediated uptake route resulted in an almost complete loss of polyplex-mediated gene expression, whereas gene expression was not negatively affected by blocking the clathrin-dependent route of uptake.

CONCLUSIONS

These results show the importance of caveolae-mediated uptake for successful gene expression and have implications for the rational design of non-viral gene delivery systems.

Reliability of confocal microscopy spectral imaging systems: Use of multispectral beads

BACKGROUND

There is a need for a standardized, impartial calibration, and validation protocol on confocal spectral imaging (CSI) microscope systems. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to have testing tools to provide a reproducible way to evaluate instrument performance.

METHODS

We evaluated fluorescent spectral beads (FocalCheck) from Molecular Probes/Invitrogen that consist of four pairs with emissions between 500 and 725 nm and a europium macrocycle quantum dye bead. These bead tools compliment our previously published protocol for testing spectral imaging systems that used an inexpensive multi-ion discharge lamp (MIDL) that contains Hg(+), Ar(+), and inorganic fluorophores that emits distinct, stable spectral features.

RESULTS

We acquired the spectra of the FocalCheck beads on a Zeiss 510 Meta, a Leica TCS-SP1, a Leica SP2 AOBS, an Olympus FV 1000, and a Nikon C1Si confocal systems and a PARISS microscopic spectral system and of the europium beads on the Leica TCS-SP1 and PARISS spectral imaging systems. A lack of performance with some equipment between 650 and 750 nm was identified using the far red pair of the FocalCheck beads. The position of the slider in front of PMT 2 that reflects light into PMT 1 and PMT 3 affected the measurement of all bead intensities. Unmixing algorithms were used to separate beads with different fluorochromes and separate two fluorochromes on the same bead.

CONCLUSIONS

The FocalCheck multi-spectral beads yielded similar profiles on four CSI systems and a PARISS spectral system. The utilization of the spectral FocalCheck beads is helpful to evaluate proper spectral performance, especially in the far red region. Europium beads provide a very narrow spectrum that can help to identify machines that have spectral problems. The dyes located on individual beads or mixed together in ring-core configuration can be used as test particles to demonstrate spectral unmixing with various algorithms.

Confocal laser scanning microscopy of whole mouse ovaries: excellent morphology, apoptosis detection, and spectroscopy

BACKGROUND

Ovaries consist of numerous follicles, oocytes, and granulosa cells in different stages of development. Many of these follicles will undergo an apoptotic process during the lifetime of the animal. By using proper tissue preparation methods, the events within the whole ovary can be observed by using 3D confocal microscopy.

METHODS

Whole ovaries were stained with LysoTracker Red (LT), fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde (PF) and 1% glutaraldehyde (Glut), dehydrated with methanol (MEOH), and cleared with benzyl alcohol and benzyl benzoate (BABB). Using this tissue preparation technique, the ovary becomes relatively transparent, allowing its morphology to be observed with confocal microscopes. A spectral imaging system (PARISS) located on a conventional microscope was used to interpret the LT dye spectra and fixation products in the tissues with different excitation wavelengths.

RESULTS

Apoptosis in the follicle was detected as clusters of intensely stained granulosa cells located in close proximity to the oocytes. The fixation with Glut and PF preserved morphological details, increased tissue fluorescence, thus increased the signal to noise of the background image.

CONCLUSIONS

Thick tissues can be imaged after they are properly stained, aldehyde fixed, and BABB cleared. LT intensely stained single cells or clusters of apoptotic cells in the follicles and the nucleolus. Spectral differences between LT as an indicator of apoptosis and Glut-PF fixation was used to visualize ovarian morphology and apoptosis. The PARISS spectrophotometer revealed spectral peaks for LT at 609.6 nm and for Glut-PF at 471.3 nm. The proper use of the spectra from these fluorescence molecules is the foundation for high quality morphological images of apoptosis. By sequentially imaging the two probes with a 488 nm laser and a 543/568 nm laser, there was a reduction in fluorescent cross talk and an increase in image quality.

Mitochondriotropic liposomes

Mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to a large variety of human disorders, ranging from neurodegenerative and neuromuscular diseases, obesity, and diabetes to ischemia-reperfusion injury and cancer. Increasing pharmacological efforts toward therapeutic interventions have been made leading to the emergence of "Mitochondrial Medicine" as a new field of biomedical research. The identification of molecular mitochondrial drug targets in combination with the development of methods for selectively delivering biologically active molecules to the site of mitochondria will eventually launch a multitude of new therapies for the treatment of mitochondria-related diseases, which are based either on the selective protection, repair, or eradication of cells. Yet, while tremendous efforts are being undertaken to identify new mitochondrial drugs and drug targets, the development of mitochondria-specific drug carrier systems is lagging behind. To ensure a high efficiency of current and future mitochondrial therapeutics, delivery systems need to be developed, which are able to selectively transport biologically active molecules to and into mitochondria within living human cells. In this study we present the first data demonstrating that conventional liposomes can be rendered mitochondria-specific via the attachment of known mitochondriotropic residues to the liposomal surface.

Microtubule-dependent movement of late endocytic vesicles in vitro: requirements for Dynein and Kinesin

Our previous studies demonstrated that fluorescent early endocytic vesicles prepared from rat liver after injection of Texas red asialoorosomucoid contain asialoglycoprotein and its receptor and move and undergo fission along microtubules using kinesin I and KIFC2, with Rab4 regulating KIFC2 activity (J. Cell Sci. 116, 2749, 2003). In the current study, procedures to prepare fluorescent late endocytic vesicles were devised. In addition, flow cytometry was utilized to prepare highly purified fluorescent endocytic vesicles, permitting validation of microscopy-based experiments as well as direct biochemical analysis. These studies revealed that late vesicles bound to and moved along microtubules, but in contrast to early vesicles, did not undergo fission. As compared with early vesicles, late vesicles had reduced association with receptor, Rab4, and kinesin I but were highly associated with dynein, Rab7, dynactin, and KIF3A. Dynein and KIF3A antibodies inhibited late vesicle motility, whereas kinesin I and KIFC2 antibodies had no effect. Dynamitin antibodies prevented the association of late vesicles with microtubules. These results indicate that acquisition and exchange of specific motor and regulatory proteins characterizes and may regulate the transition of early to late endocytic vesicles. Flow cytometric purification should ultimately facilitate detailed proteomic analysis and mapping of endocytic vesicle-associated proteins.