1
|
Unlu H, Macaron MM, Ayraler Taner H, Kaba D, Akin Sari B, Schneekloth TD, Leggio L, Abulseoud OA. Sex difference in alcohol withdrawal syndrome: a scoping review of clinical studies. Front Psychiatry 2023; 14:1266424. [PMID: 37810604 PMCID: PMC10556532 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1266424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Background We conducted a review of all studies comparing clinical aspects of alcohol withdrawal syndrome (AWS) between men and women. Methods Five databases (PubMed, Cochrane, EMBASE, Scopus and Clinical Trials) were searched for clinical studies using the keywords "alcohol withdrawal syndrome" or "delirium tremens" limited to "sex" or "gender" or "sex difference" or "gender difference." The search was conducted on May 19, 2023. Two reviewers selected studies including both male and female patients with AWS, and they compared males and females in type of AWS symptoms, clinical course, complications, and treatment outcome. Results Thirty-five observational studies were included with a total of 318,730 participants of which 75,346 had AWS. In twenty of the studies, the number of patients presenting with or developing AWS was separated by sex, resulting in a total of 8,159 (12.5%) female patients and a total of 56,928 (87.5%) male patients. Despite inconsistent results, males were more likely than females to develop complicated AWS [delirium tremens (DT) and AW seizures, collective DT in Males vs. females: 1,792 (85.4%) vs. 307 (14.6%), and collective seizures in males vs. females: 294 (78%) vs. 82 (22%)]. The rates of ICU admissions and hospital length of stay did not show sex differences. Although variable across studies, compared to females, males received benzodiazepine treatment at higher frequency and dose. One study reported that the time from first hospitalization for AWS to death was approximately 1.5 years shorter for males and males had higher mortality rate [19.5% (197/1,016)] compared to females [16% (26/163)]. Conclusion Despite the significant heterogeneity of the studies selected and the lack of a focus on investigating potential sex differences, this review of clinical studies on AWS suggests that men and women exhibit different AWS manifestations. Large-scale studies focusing specifically on investigating sex difference in AWS are needed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hayrunnisa Unlu
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Mayo Clinic Arizona, Phoenix, AZ, United States
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Baskent University School of Medicine Hospital, Ankara, Turkey
| | | | - Hande Ayraler Taner
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Baskent University School of Medicine Hospital, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Duygu Kaba
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Baskent University School of Medicine Hospital, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Burcu Akin Sari
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Baskent University School of Medicine Hospital, Ankara, Turkey
| | - Terry D. Schneekloth
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Mayo Clinic Arizona, Phoenix, AZ, United States
| | - Lorenzo Leggio
- Section on Clinical Psychoneuroendocrinology and Neuropsychopharmacology, Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, and National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Osama A. Abulseoud
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Mayo Clinic Arizona, Phoenix, AZ, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Phoenix, AZ, United States
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Radke AK, Held IT, Sneddon EA, Riddle CA, Quinn JJ. Additive influences of acute early life stress and sex on vulnerability for aversion-resistant alcohol drinking. Addict Biol 2020; 25:e12829. [PMID: 31657073 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2019] [Revised: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Acute early life stress (ELS) alters stress system functioning in adulthood and increases susceptibility to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and alcohol use disorder (AUD). The current study assessed the effects of acute, infant ELS on alcohol drinking, including aversion-resistant drinking, in male and female Long Evans rats. Acute ELS was induced using a stress-enhanced fear learning (SEFL) protocol that consisted of 15 footshocks delivered on postnatal day (PND) 17. Alcohol drinking during adolescence and adulthood was measured with a two-bottle choice intermittent alcohol access paradigm. Aversion-resistant drinking was assessed in adulthood by adding quinine (0.01, 0.1, and 1.0 g/L) to the alcohol bottle after 5 to 6 weeks and 11 to 12 weeks of drinking. ELS had minimal influences on adolescent and adult alcohol consumption and preference. However, ELS, sex, and alcohol exposure history all influenced aversion-resistant alcohol drinking in an additive fashion. Higher concentrations of quinine were tolerated in females, ELS-exposed rats, and after 11 to 12 weeks of drinking. Tests of quinine sensitivity in a separate cohort of animals found that rats can detect concentrations of quinine as low as 0.001 g/L in water and that quinine sensitivity is not influenced by sex or ELS exposure. These results agree with reports of sex differences in aversion-resistant drinking and are the first to demonstrate an influence of ELS on this behavior. Our results also suggest that a single traumatic stress exposure in infancy may be a promising model of comorbid PTSD and AUD and useful in studying the interactions between ELS, sex, and alcohol dependence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna K Radke
- Department of Psychology and Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
| | - Isabel T Held
- Department of Psychology and Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
| | - Elizabeth A Sneddon
- Department of Psychology and Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
| | - Collin A Riddle
- Department of Psychology and Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
| | - Jennifer J Quinn
- Department of Psychology and Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Treadmill Exercise Buffers Behavioral Alterations Related to Ethanol Binge-Drinking in Adolescent Mice. Brain Sci 2020; 10:brainsci10090576. [PMID: 32825478 PMCID: PMC7563508 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci10090576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The binge-drinking pattern of EtOH consumption, which is frequently observed in adolescents, is known to induce several neurobehavioral alterations, but protection strategies against these impairments remain scarcely explored. We aimed to study the protective role of treadmill physical exercise on the deficits caused after repeated cycles of binge-like EtOH exposure in the cognition, motivation, exploration, and emotion of C57BL/6J mice from adolescence to adulthood. Animals were divided into four groups: control group, exercised group, EtOH group, and exercised + EtOH group (20% in tap water). The exercise was performed for 20 min, 5 days/week at 20 cm/s. Then, animals were submitted to several behavioral tasks. Compared to binge-drinking mice, the exercised + EtOH group exhibited diminished anxiolytic-related behaviors in the elevated plus-maze, enhanced exploratory activity in the open field, reduced preference for alcohol odor when another rewarding stimulus was present (social stimulus) and lower latency to start self-cleaning behaviors in the sucrose splash test. In contrast, other measurements such as habituation learning and working memory were not improved by exercise. Besides, exercise was not able to reduce alcohol consumption across the weeks. In conclusion, physical activity during adolescence and early adulthood could buffer certain neurobehavioral alterations associated with binge-drinking, despite not reducing the quantity of consumed alcohol.
Collapse
|
4
|
Mocelin R, Marcon M, da Rosa Araujo AS, Herrmann AP, Piato A. Withdrawal effects following repeated ethanol exposure are prevented by N-acetylcysteine in zebrafish. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2019; 93:161-170. [PMID: 30946939 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2019.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Alcohol abuse is a highly prevalent condition that substantially contributes to global morbidity and mortality. Most available pharmacological treatments offer little efficacy as relapse rates are high, due in part to the symptoms experienced during abstinence. The roles of oxidative stress and glutamatergic transmission in alcohol withdrawal have been demonstrated in several studies, suggesting that restoration of oxidative status and glutamatergic function may represent a new pharmacological target to prevent the behavioral and biochemical alterations observed during withdrawal. A well-known antioxidant and glutamatergic modulator, N-acetylcysteine (NAC), has shown promise in treating a variety of psychiatric conditions, including substance use disorders, and is a promising molecule in the management of alcohol withdrawal syndrome. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate whether NAC is able to prevent the expression of behavioral and biochemical alterations induced by ethanol withdrawal in chronically exposed zebrafish. Animals were exposed to ethanol (1% v/v, 20 min) or control water, followed by treatment with NAC (1 mg/L, 10 min) or control water daily for 8 days; 24 h later, experimental animals were submitted to the novel tank test (NTT). Ethanol withdrawal decreased the distance traveled and increased the number of immobile episodes, indicating locomotor deficits; moreover, withdrawal decreased the number of entries and time spent in the top area, while increasing time spent in the bottom area, indicating anxiety-like behavior. Alcohol withdrawal also increased lipid peroxidation (TBARS) and decreased non-protein reduced sulfhydryl (NPSH) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) activities. NAC attenuated these locomotor deficits and prevented the manifestation of anxiety-like behavior as well as the oxidative damage observed following ethanol withdrawal. Given its favorable safety profile, additional clinical and preclinical studies are warranted to unravel the long-term effects of NAC in the context of alcohol abuse and the exact mechanisms involved. Nevertheless, our study adds to the existing body of evidence supporting the clinical evaluation of NAC in substance abuse disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ricieri Mocelin
- Laboratory of Psychopharmacology and Behavior, Basic Sciences Institute of Health, Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Neuroscience, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS 90050-170, Brazil
| | - Matheus Marcon
- Laboratory of Psychopharmacology and Behavior, Basic Sciences Institute of Health, Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Neuroscience, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS 90050-170, Brazil
| | - Alex Sander da Rosa Araujo
- Laboratory of Cardiovascular Physiology and Reactive Oxygen Species, Basic Sciences Institute of Health, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS 90050-170, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Herrmann
- Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Basic Sciences Institute of Health, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS 90050-170, Brazil
| | - Angelo Piato
- Laboratory of Psychopharmacology and Behavior, Basic Sciences Institute of Health, Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Neuroscience, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS 90050-170, Brazil; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Basic Sciences Institute of Health, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS 90050-170, Brazil; Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC), Los Angeles, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Sneddon EA, White RD, Radke AK. Sex Differences in Binge-Like and Aversion-Resistant Alcohol Drinking in C57BL/6J Mice. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2018; 43:243-249. [PMID: 30431655 DOI: 10.1111/acer.13923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2018] [Accepted: 11/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alcohol use disorder is characterized by compulsive alcohol intake, or drinking despite negative consequences. Previous studies have shown that female rodents have a heightened vulnerability to drug use across different stages of the addictive cycle, but no previous studies have studied females in a model of aversion-resistant alcohol intake. Here, we investigated sex differences in binge-like and aversion-resistant alcohol drinking in C57BL/6J mice using a modified drinking-in-the-dark (DID) paradigm. METHODS In Experiment 1, 24-hour aversion to quinine (0, 100, or 250 μM) was assessed. In Experiment 2, male and female adult C57BL/6J mice consumed 15% ethanol (EtOH) or water in a 2-bottle limited-access DID paradigm for 2 h/d for 15 days. The EtOH was next adulterated with quinine (0, 100, or 250 μM) over 3 consecutive drinking sessions to test aversion-resistant intake. In Experiment 3, intake of quinine-adulterated (100 μM) EtOH was assessed across all 15 drinking sessions. RESULTS Quinine was equally aversive to both sexes in Experiment 1. In Experiment 2, female mice consumed significantly more alcohol than male mice during the final 6 drinking sessions. Levels of aversion-resistant intake did not differ between the sexes. In Experiment 3, quinine suppressed consumption in all mice, though females drank significantly more on the final 2 sessions. CONCLUSIONS The results of this study demonstrate that while female mice escalate and consume more EtOH than males, both sexes exhibit similar levels of aversion-resistant drinking. These results inform our understanding of how sex interacts with vulnerability for addiction and argue for the inclusion of females in more studies of aversion-resistant alcohol drinking.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Robert D White
- Department of Psychology , Miami University, Oxford, Ohio
| | - Anna K Radke
- Department of Psychology , Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.,Center for Neuroscience and Behavior , Miami University, Oxford, Ohio
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
da Silva Chaves SN, Felício GR, Costa BPD, de Oliveira WEA, Lima-Maximino MG, Siqueira Silva DHD, Maximino C. Behavioral and biochemical effects of ethanol withdrawal in zebrafish. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2018; 169:48-58. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2018.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2018] [Revised: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
|
7
|
Morales M, McGinnis MM, Robinson SL, Chappell AM, McCool BA. Chronic Intermittent Ethanol Exposure Modulation of Glutamatergic Neurotransmission in Rat Lateral/Basolateral Amygdala is Duration-, Input-, and Sex-Dependent. Neuroscience 2017; 371:277-287. [PMID: 29237566 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2017] [Revised: 11/30/2017] [Accepted: 12/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The basolateral amygdala (BLA) controls numerous behaviors, like anxiety and reward seeking, via the activity of glutamatergic principal neurons. These BLA neurons receive excitatory inputs primarily via two major anatomical pathways - the external capsule (EC), which contains afferents from lateral cortical structures, and the stria terminalis (ST), containing synapses from more midline brain structures. Chronic intermittent ethanol (CIE) exposure/withdrawal produces distinct alterations in these pathways. Specifically, 10 days of CIE (via vapor inhalation) increases presynaptic function at ST synapses and postsynaptic function at EC synapses. Given that 10-day CIE/withdrawal also increases anxiety-like behavior, we sought to examine the development of these alterations at these inputs using an exposure time-course in both male and female rats. Specifically, using 3, 7, and 10 days CIE exposure, we found that all three durations increase anxiety-like behavior in the elevated plus maze. At BLA synapses, increased presynaptic function at ST inputs required shorter exposure durations relative to post-synaptic alterations at EC inputs in both sexes. But, synaptic alterations in females required longer ethanol exposures compared to males. These data suggest that presynaptic alteration at ST-BLA afferents is an early neuroadaptation during repeated ethanol exposures. And, the similar patterns of presynaptic-then-postsynaptic facilitation across the sexes suggest the former may be required for the latter. These cooperative interactions may contribute to the increased anxiety-like behavior that is observed following CIE-induced withdrawal and may provide novel therapeutic targets to reverse withdrawal-induced anxiety.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Morales
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27103, USA.
| | - Molly M McGinnis
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27103, USA
| | - Stacey L Robinson
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27103, USA
| | - Ann M Chappell
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27103, USA
| | - Brian A McCool
- Department of Physiology & Pharmacology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27103, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Effects of age, but not sex, on elevated startle during withdrawal from acute morphine in adolescent and adult rats. Behav Pharmacol 2016; 26:485-8. [PMID: 26154436 DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0000000000000151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Investigations into animal models of drug withdrawal have largely found that emotional signs of withdrawal (e.g. anxiety, anhedonia, and aversion) in adolescents are experienced earlier and less severely than in their adult counterparts. The majority of these reports have examined withdrawal from ethanol or nicotine. To expand our knowledge about the emotional withdrawal state in adolescent rats, we used potentiation of the acoustic startle reflex after an acute dose of morphine (10 mg/kg, subcutaneously) as a measure of opiate withdrawal. Startle was measured at four time points after morphine injection (2, 3, 4, and 5 h) in 28-day-old and 90-day-old male and female rats. The results of this experiment revealed that peak potentiation of the startle reflex occurred at 3 h in the adolescent rats and at 5 h in the adult rats, and that the magnitude of withdrawal was larger in the adults. No sex differences were observed. Overall, these results affirm that, similar to withdrawal from ethanol and nicotine, opiate withdrawal signs are less severe in adolescent than in adult rats.
Collapse
|
9
|
Radke AK, Holtz NA, Gewirtz JC, Carroll ME. Reduced emotional signs of opiate withdrawal in rats selectively bred for low (LoS) versus high (HiS) saccharin intake. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2013; 227:117-26. [PMID: 23254375 PMCID: PMC3624049 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-012-2945-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2012] [Accepted: 12/01/2012] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Rats bred for high (HiS) and low (LoS) saccharin intake exhibit divergent behavioral responses to multiple drugs of abuse, with HiS rats displaying greater vulnerability to drug taking. Previous research indicates that this effect may be due to increased sensitivity to reward in HiS rats and to the aversive effects of acute drug administration in LoS rats. OBJECTIVE The current study investigated whether HiS and LoS rats also exhibit different behavioral signs of withdrawal following one or repeated opiate exposures. METHODS Emotional signs of opiate withdrawal were assessed with potentiation of the acoustic startle reflex and conditioned place aversion (CPA) in male and female HiS and LoS rats. Startle was measured before and 4 h after a 10-mg/kg injection of morphine on days 1, 2, and 7 of opiate exposure. CPA was induced with a 2-day, naloxone-precipitated conditioning paradigm. Somatic signs of withdrawal and weight loss were also measured. RESULTS Male and female LoS rats exhibited lower startle potentiation than HiS rats on the seventh day of morphine exposure. LoS male rats also failed to develop a CPA to morphine withdrawal. No differences in physical withdrawal signs were observed between HiS and LoS rats, but males of both lines had more physical signs of withdrawal than females. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that LoS rats are less vulnerable to the negative emotional effects of morphine withdrawal than HiS rats. A less severe withdrawal syndrome may contribute to decreased levels of drug taking in the LoS line.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna K. Radke
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
,National Institute of Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism National Institutes of Health 5625 Fishers Lane Rockville, MD 20852 Phone: 301-443-4052 Fax: 301-480-1952
| | - Nathan A. Holtz
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Jonathan C. Gewirtz
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
,Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Marilyn E. Carroll
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Carroll ME, Anker JJ. Sex differences and ovarian hormones in animal models of drug dependence. Horm Behav 2010; 58:44-56. [PMID: 19818789 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2009.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2009] [Revised: 09/25/2009] [Accepted: 10/01/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Increasing evidence indicates the presence of sex differences in many aspects of drug abuse. Most studies reveal that females exceed males during the initiation, escalation, extinction, and reinstatement (relapse) of drug-seeking behavior, but males are more sensitive than females to the aversive effects of drugs such as drug withdrawal. Findings from human and animal research indicate that circulating levels of ovarian steroid hormones account for these sex differences. Estrogen (E) facilitates drug-seeking behavior, while progesterone (P) and its metabolite, allopregnanalone (ALLO), counteract the effects of E and reduce drug seeking. Estrogen and P influence other behaviors that are affiliated with drug abuse such as drug-induced locomotor sensitization and conditioned place preference. The enhanced vulnerability to drug seeking in females vs. males is also additive with the other risk factors for drug abuse (e.g., adolescence, sweet preference, novelty reactivity, and impulsivity). Finally, treatment studies using behavioral or pharmacological interventions, including P and ALLO, also indicate that females show greater treatment effectiveness during several phases of the addiction process. The neurobiological basis of sex differences in drug abuse appears to be genetic and involves the influence of ovarian hormones and their metabolites, the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis, dopamine (DA), and gamma-hydroxy-butyric acid (GABA). Overall, sex and hormonal status along with other biological risk factors account for a continuum of addiction-prone and -resistant animal models that are valuable for studying drug abuse prevention and treatment strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marilyn E Carroll
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Minnesota, MMC 392, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Carroll ME, Mach JL, La Nasa RM, Newman JL. Impulsivity as a behavioral measure of withdrawal of orally delivered PCP and nondrug rewards in male and female monkeys. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2009; 207:85-98. [PMID: 19697013 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-009-1636-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2009] [Accepted: 07/23/2009] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Withdrawal of phencyclidine (PCP), ethanol (ETOH), and other drugs reduces operant responding maintained by food. OBJECTIVES Experiment 1 examined the effects of withdrawing daily short access (2 h) to drug on impulsivity for saccharin (SACC) using a delay discounting task and comparing male and female rhesus monkeys. Experiment 2 examined the effects of withdrawing a nondrug substance (e.g., food or SACC) on impulsivity for PCP. MATERIALS AND METHODS In experiment 1, either PCP or ETOH was available daily with water for 2 h under a fixed ratio 16 (FR 16) or FR 8 schedule, respectively. In a second component, SACC was available for 45 min under a delay discounting schedule. Next, water was substituted, and drug access was then restored. In experiment 2, PCP was available under a delay discounting schedule during food satiation or restriction or during concurrent SACC vs water access. RESULTS In experiment 1, withdrawal of 0.5 mg/ml PCP increased impulsivity for SACC, but not SACC intake, in males and females. During 16% ETOH access, impulsivity for SACC was elevated compared to baseline water access, and it returned to baseline levels during ETOH withdrawal. In experiment 2, food restriction resulted in increased PCP intake in males and females and increases in impulsivity for PCP that were greater in males than in females. SACC withdrawal had no effect on impulsivity for PCP or PCP intake. CONCLUSIONS Withdrawal of PCP and reduced food access increased impulsivity for SACC or PCP, respectively. Impulsivity is a sensitive indicator of drug dependence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marilyn E Carroll
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Minnesota, MMC 392, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Selective breeding for differential saccharin intake as an animal model of drug abuse. Behav Pharmacol 2008; 19:435-60. [DOI: 10.1097/fbp.0b013e32830c3632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
13
|
Prediger RDS, da Silva GE, Batista LC, Bittencourt AL, Takahashi RN. Activation of adenosine A1 receptors reduces anxiety-like behavior during acute ethanol withdrawal (hangover) in mice. Neuropsychopharmacology 2006; 31:2210-20. [PMID: 16407902 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Elevated signs of anxiety are observed in both humans and rodents during withdrawal from chronic as well as acute ethanol exposure, and it represents an important motivational factor for ethanol relapse. Several reports have suggested the involvement of brain adenosine receptors in different actions produced by ethanol such as motor incoordination and hypnotic effects. In addition, we have recently demonstrated that adenosine A1 receptors modulate the anxiolytic-like effect induced by ethanol in mice. In the present study, we evaluated the potential of adenosine A1 and A2A receptor agonists in reducing the anxiety-like behavior during acute ethanol withdrawal (hangover) in mice. Animals received a single intraperitoneal administration of saline or ethanol (4 g/kg) and were tested in the elevated plus maze after an interval of 0.5-24 h. The results indicated that hangover-induced anxiety was most pronounced between 12 and 18 h after ethanol administration, as indicated by a significant reduction in the exploration of the open arms of the maze. At this time interval, ethanol was completely cleared. The acute administration of 'nonanxiolytic' doses of adenosine and the selective adenosine A1 receptor agonist 2-chloro-N6-cyclopentyladenosine (CCPA), but not the adenosine A2A receptor agonist N6-[2-(3,5-dimethoxyphenyl)-2-(2-methylphenyl)ethyl]adenosine (DPMA), at the onset of peak withdrawal (18 h), reduced this anxiogenic-like response. In addition, the effect of CCPA on the anxiety-like behavior of ethanol hangover was reversed by pretreatment with the selective adenosine A1 receptor antagonist 8-cyclopentyl-1,3-dipropylxanthine (DPCPX). These results reinforce the notion of the involvement of adenosine receptors in the anxiety-like responses and indicate the potential of adenosine A1 receptor agonists to reduce the anxiogenic effects during ethanol withdrawal.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rui D S Prediger
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Centro de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, UFSC, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Klouckova I, Hrncirova P, Mechref Y, Arnold RJ, Li TK, McBride WJ, Novotny MV. Changes in liver protein abundance in inbred alcohol-preferring rats due to chronic alcohol exposure, as measured through a proteomics approach. Proteomics 2006; 6:3060-74. [PMID: 16619309 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200500725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
This study compares the total liver proteome of inbred alcohol-preferring line (iP) rats exposed to alcohol with iP rats without alcohol experience. Rat liver proteins were extracted using a three-step procedure. Each of the three solutions solubilizes a different set of proteins. The extracted proteins were separated by 2-DE. Scanned gels of two sample groups, alcohol-exposed iP and alcohol-naïve iP, were compared, revealing many protein spots with significantly higher or lower densities. These spots were cut from the gel, destained, and subjected to trypsin digestion and subsequent identification by LC-MS/MS. Twenty-four individual rats, 12 alcohol-naïve, and 12 alcohol-exposed, were used in this study. Two groups, each containing six naïve and six exposed animals, were created for statistical comparison. For the first group, 64 spots were observed to have statistically significant intensity differences upon alcohol exposure across all three extracts while 118 such spots were found in the second group. There were 113 unique proteins in both groups together. The majority of these proteins were enzymes. Significant changes are observed for three major metabolic pathways: glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, and fatty acid beta-oxidation. In addition, enzymes involved in protein synthesis and antioxidant activity show significant changes in abundance in response to alcohol exposure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Iveta Klouckova
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, 800 E. Kirkwood Avenue, Bloomington, IN 47405, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Perry JL, Normile LM, Morgan AD, Carroll ME. Sex differences in physical dependence on orally self-administered phencyclidine (PCP) in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Exp Clin Psychopharmacol 2006; 14:68-78. [PMID: 16503706 DOI: 10.1037/1064-1297.14.1.68] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Withdrawal from orally self-administered phencyclidine (PCP) has been shown to alter operant baselines of food-maintained responding. The goal of the present study was to determine whether there are sex differences in these alterations. Seven female and 7 male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) were given concurrent access to PCP and water under fixed ratio (FR) 8 schedules during 2 daily sessions that alternated with 2 sessions during which pellet deliveries were contingent on lever presses under an FR 64 schedule. After operant responding stabilized, PCP was replaced by water for 10 days, and food access remained under the same schedule. Subsequently, concurrent PCP and water access was reintroduced for 10 days. This procedure was repeated with 3 PCP concentrations (0.125, 0.25, and 0.50 mg/ml) and 3 FR requirements for food-reinforced responding (64, 128, and 256). Disruptions in operant responding for food served as a quantitative measure of withdrawal severity. During PCP withdrawal, males showed a greater suppression of food-maintained behavior than females at the 2 highest PCP concentrations and the lowest FR requirement tested. Males responded more than females for PCP; however, when weight was taken into consideration, PCP intake (milligrams per kilogram) in males and females was equal. The data suggest that males may experience more severe withdrawal effects than females, and the duration of the adverse effects of withdrawal lasts longer in males than in females. This study is the 1st to use nonhuman primates to document sex differences in withdrawal severity as measured by a quantifiable baseline.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L Perry
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Minnesota, MN 55455, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Jung ME, Gatch MB, Simpkins JW. Estrogen neuroprotection against the neurotoxic effects of ethanol withdrawal: potential mechanisms. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2005; 230:8-22. [PMID: 15618121 DOI: 10.1177/153537020523000102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Ethanol withdrawal (EW) produces substantial neurotoxic effects, whereas estrogen is neuroprotective. Given observations that both human and nonhuman female subjects often show less impairment following EW, it is reasonable to hypothesize that estrogens may protect females from the neurotoxic effects of ethanol. This article is based on the assumption that the behavioral deficits seen following EW are produced in part by neuronal death triggered by oxidative insults produced by EW. The EW leads to activation of protein kinase C, especially PKCepsilon, which subsequently triggers apoptotic downstream events such as phosphorylation of nuclear factor-kappaB (NFkappaB) complex. On phosphorylation, active NFkappaB translocates to the nucleus, binds to DNA, and activates caspases, which trigger DNA fragmentation and apoptosis. In contrast, estrogens are antioxidant, inhibit overexpression of PKCepsilon, and suppress expression of NFkappaB and caspases. Estrogen treatment reduces the behavioral deficits seen during EW and attenuates molecular signals of apoptosis. The effects of ethanol and estrogen on each step in the signaling cascade from ethanol exposure to apoptosis are reviewed, and potential mechanisms by which estrogen could produce neuronal protection against the neurotoxicity produced by EW are identified. These studies serve as a guide for continuing research into the mechanisms of the neuroprotective effects of estrogen during EW and for the development of potential estrogen-based treatments for male and female alcoholics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M E Jung
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, 3500 Camp Bowie Boulevard, Fort Worth, TX 76107, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Varlinskaya EI, Spear LP. Acute ethanol withdrawal (hangover) and social behavior in adolescent and adult male and female Sprague-Dawley rats. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2004; 28:40-50. [PMID: 14745301 DOI: 10.1097/01.alc.0000108655.51087.df] [Citation(s) in RCA: 134] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The extensive use of alcohol during adolescence may be facilitated by an age-specific attenuation in sensitivity to adverse effects of ethanol. Adolescent rats are less sensitive than adults to some delayed effects of acute ethanol, including hangover-related anxiety on an elevated plus maze. The purpose of this study was to determine whether adolescent rats are also less sensitive than adults to hangover-related anxiogenesis when indexed in terms of social inhibition. METHODS Anxiety during ethanol hangover was indexed in adolescent and adult Sprague-Dawley rats of both genders by assessing the suppression in social behavior during a social interaction test. Animals were tested 18 hr after intraperitoneal administration of 0 g/kg (saline) or 4 g/kg ethanol (experiment 1) or at test intervals chosen on the basis of assessments of ethanol clearance time (experiment 2) to equate clearance-to-test intervals across age and gender (experiments 3-5). RESULTS Adults showed more hangover-related social suppression and slower postclearance recovery than adolescents. Sex differences were more pronounced in adults than adolescents, with males being more affected than females. Ethanol clearance time was considerably longer in adult males than in adolescent animals and adult females. In contrast to the modest decreases in social activity observed in adolescent animals shortly after ethanol clearance, adolescents showed a surprising increase in play fighting later in the recovery period- a hangover-related social facilitation that was not evident in adults. CONCLUSIONS The attenuated anxiety and increase in social interactions seen in adolescents during hangover are less likely to serve as deterrents for further drinking than the aversive increase in anxiety seen in adults. A facilitation of social interactions not only during a drinking episode, but also during the postalcohol recovery period, could help to establish a persisting cycle of drinking in at-risk adolescents, leading to dependency and a lifelong history of alcohol-related problems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elena I Varlinskaya
- Department of Psychology, Center for Developmental Psychology, Binghamton University, Binghamton, New York, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Popović M, Caballero-Bleda M, Puelles L, Guerri C. Multiple binge alcohol consumption during rat adolescence increases anxiety but does not impair retention in the passive avoidance task. Neurosci Lett 2004; 357:79-82. [PMID: 15036579 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2003.10.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2003] [Revised: 10/07/2003] [Accepted: 10/17/2003] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the effect of binge alcohol consumption on anxiety-related behavior and memory in adolescent male Wistar rats. Three consecutive daily sessions of ethanol administration (5 g/kg) were repeated weekly for 4 weeks. The retention of passive avoidance was measured weekly, 48 h following the treatment. Three days after the last memory test a novel object exploration test was done. There was no significant difference in step-through latency between the groups, but the ethanol-treated group displayed a significantly higher incidence of defecation, and an increased number of boluses during the passive avoidance test. The latency to explore a novel object was also higher, while the duration of exploration was significantly lower. Together, these data suggest that binge alcohol consumption in adolescent rats does not impair their memory in passive avoidance tasks, but may significantly increase their anxiety.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miroljub Popović
- Departamento de Anatomía Humana y Psicobiología, Facultad de Medicina, Campus Universitario de Espinardo, Universidad de Murcia, 30100 Murcia, Spain.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Gatch MB. Discriminative stimulus effects of m-chlorophenylpiperazine as a model of the role of serotonin receptors in anxiety. Life Sci 2003; 73:1347-67. [PMID: 12850497 DOI: 10.1016/s0024-3205(03)00422-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Serotonin is known to play a role in anxiety. The roles of serotonin reuptake and 5-HT1A receptors have been well characterized, but the contribution of other serotonin receptor subtypes is not as clear. 1-(3-Chlorophenyl)-piperazine (mCPP), which binds non-selectively to a wide range of serotonin receptors, has often been used to produce anxiety in humans and in animal models. Because functional assays indicate that mCPP is significantly more potent at 5-HT2C receptors, it may serve as a tool to investigate the contribution of 5-HT2C receptors to anxiety. This paper reviews the results of behavioral tests using mCPP, including the drug discrimination assay, to model anxiety. Although the discriminative stimulus effects of mCPP do not seem to be a useful screen for general anxiolytics, they do seem to be useful for characterization of the contribution of 5-HT1B and 5-HT2C receptors to the mediation of anxiety-like behaviors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael B Gatch
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd., Fort Worth, TX 76107-2699, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Doremus TL, Brunell SC, Varlinskaya EI, Spear LP. Anxiogenic effects during withdrawal from acute ethanol in adolescent and adult rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2003; 75:411-8. [PMID: 12873633 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-3057(03)00134-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Elevated signs of anxiety are observed in adult rodents during withdrawal from chronic as well as acute ethanol exposure. To determine whether adolescents, in addition to their insensitivity to a number of acute ethanol effects, might likewise be hyposensitive to these anxiogenic manifestations of withdrawal from an acute ethanol challenge, the behavior of adolescent and adult male Sprague-Dawley rats was assessed in an elevated plus maze (EPM) 18 h following intraperitoneal challenge with 4 g/kg ethanol. Adult but not adolescent animals demonstrated evidence of anxiety in the plus maze during acute ethanol withdrawal. To ensure that this finding did not merely reflect age differences in ethanol clearance, clearance times at each age were determined, with additional adolescents tested at the same time postclearance as the adults were previously. Adolescents still failed to demonstrate anxiogenic signs of withdrawal. Suppression of activity during the withdrawal test, however, was evident in animals of both ages. A relative resistance to the anxiogenic effects associated with acute ethanol withdrawal during adolescence could serve as a permissive factor for development of binge drinking patterns among human adolescents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tamara L Doremus
- Center for Developmental Psychology, Department of Psychology, Binghamton University, PO Box 6000, State University of New York, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Abstract
Male Long-Evans rats were trained to discriminate mCPP (1.4 mg/kg, i.p.) from saline, using a two-lever, food-reinforced operant task. The GABA(A) antagonist, bicuculline (0.16-0.64 mg/kg), partially substituted for mCPP, whereas the benzodiazepine antagonist, flumazenil (1-10 mg/kg), and the benzodiazepine inverse agonist, Ro 15-4513 (0.25-2.5 mg/kg), failed to substitute for mCPP. Bicuculline produced no change in response rate, whereas Ro 15-4513 dose-dependently decreased responding. Flumazenil produced a small increase in response rates. Flumazenil (10 mg/kg), Ro 15-4513 (1.25 mg/kg), and the benzodiazepine agonists alprazolam (0.64 mg/kg) and diazepam (5 mg/kg) full agonist all failed to block the mCPP discriminative stimulus. When given in combination with mCPP, Ro15-4513 and alprazolam both produced lower response rates than did mCPP alone, whereas flumazenil and diazepam did not significantly alter response rates. These findings provide evidence that GABA(A) antagonists modulate the discriminative stimulus effects of mCPP, but that these effects are not mediated by activity at the benzodiazepine site.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael B Gatch
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth 76107-2699, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Jung ME, Lal H, Gatch MB. The discriminative stimulus effects of pentylenetetrazol as a model of anxiety: recent developments. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2002; 26:429-39. [PMID: 12204190 DOI: 10.1016/s0149-7634(02)00010-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Pentylenetetrazol (PTZ), a GABA(A) receptor antagonist and prototypical anxiogenic drug, has been extensively utilized in animal models of anxiety. PTZ produces a reliable discriminative stimulus which is largely mediated by the GABA(A) receptor. Several classes of compounds can modulate the PTZ discriminative stimulus including 5-HT(1A), 5-HT(3), NMDA, glycine, and L-type calcium channel ligands. Spontaneous PTZ-lever responding is seen in trained rats during withdrawal from GABA(A) receptor compounds such as chlordiazepoxide and diazepam, and also ethanol, morphine, nicotine, cocaine, haloperidol, and phencyclidine. This effect is largely mediated by the GABA(A) receptor, which suggests that anxiety may be part of a generalized withdrawal syndrome mediated by the GABA(A) receptor. There are also important hormonal influences on PTZ. Corticosterone plays some role in mediation of its anxiogenic effects. There is a marked sex difference in response to the discriminative stimulus effects of PTZ, and estrogens appear to protect against its anxiogenic effects. Further work with the PTZ drug discrimination is warranted for characterization of anxiety during withdrawal, and the hormonal mechanisms of anxiety.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marianna E Jung
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Boulevard, Fort Worth, TX 76107-2699, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|