What products are considered psychoactive under New Zealand's legal market for new psychoactive substances (NPS, ‘legal highs’)? Implications for law enforcement and penalties

Sensitive detection of synthetic cannabinoids in human blood using magnetic polydopamine molecularly imprinted polymer nanocomposites

Synthetic cannabinoids (SCs) are a series of artificial chemical substances with pharmacological properties similar to those of natural cannabinoids and their abuse poses a great risk to social security and human health. However, the highly sensitive detection of low concentrations of SCs in human serum remains a great challenge. In this work, we developed a highly sensitive, rapid and highly selective method for the detection of SCs in human serum. Magnetic molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) nanocomposites were prepared through self-polymerization of dopamine and template molecules on the surfaces of magnetic beads. 9H-Carbazole-9-hexanol (9CH) was used as a template molecule because of its long chain structure shared with six synthetic cannabinoids and its ability to provide specific recognition sites. With these magnetic MIP nanoparticles, six SCs could be rapidly and effectively extracted from human blood. The concentrations of six SCs could be accurately determined by high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) analysis. The limits of detection were in the range of 0.1-0.3 ng mL-1. The proposed method is characterized by high sensitivity and selectivity, and has great potential for application in the analysis of practical samples.

The Alkylamine Stimulant 1,3-Dimethylamylamine Exhibits Substrate-Like Regulation of Dopamine Transporter Function and Localization

The alkylamine stimulant 1,3-dimethylamylamine (DMAA) is used nonmedically as an appetite suppressant and exercise performance enhancer despite adverse cardiovascular effects that have limited its legal status. There is scant research describing the mechanism of action of DMAA, making it difficult to gauge risks or therapeutic potential. An important molecular target of structurally related phenethylamines, such as amphetamine, for regulating mood, cognition, movement, and the development of substance use disorder is the dopamine transporter, which limits the range and magnitude of dopamine signaling via reuptake from the extracellular space. The present studies were therefore initiated to characterize the effects of DMAA on dopamine transporter function. Specifically, we tested the hypothesis that DMAA exhibits substrate-like effects on dopamine transporter function and trafficking. In transport assays in human embryonic kidney cells, DMAA inhibited dopamine uptake by the human dopamine transporter in a competitive manner. Docking analysis and molecular dynamics simulations supported these findings, revealing that DMAA binds to the S1 substrate binding site and induces a conformational change from outward-facing open to outward-facing closed states, similar to the known substrates. Further supporting substrate-like effects of DMAA, the drug stimulated dopamine transporter endocytosis in a heterologous expression system via cocaine- and protein kinase A-sensitive mechanisms, mirroring findings with amphetamine. Together, these data indicate that DMAA elicits neurologic effects by binding to and regulating function of the dopamine transporter. Furthermore, pharmacologic distinctions from amphetamine reveal structural determinants for regulating transporter conformation and add mechanistic insight for the regulation of dopamine transporter endocytosis. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: The alkylamine stimulant 1,3-dimethylamylamine (DMAA) is used as an appetite suppressant and athletic performance enhancer and is structurally similar to amphetamine, but there is scant research describing its mechanism of action. Characterizing the effects of DMAA on dopamine transporter function supports evaluation of potential risks and therapeutic potential while also revealing mechanistic details of dynamic transporter-substrate interactions.

Taking the cat-and-mouse game to the next level: different perspectives on the introduction of the German New Psychoactive Substances Act

BACKGROUND

To counteract the spread of new psychoactive substances (NPS) and to prevent the emergence of novel substances, specifically designed as a response to the legal control of individual substances, a new law was introduced in Germany in 2016: the New Psychoactive Substances Act (NpSG). The NpSG combines a generic approach with the waiver of criminal liability for the acquisition and possession of NPS for personal use, which is a novelty in German narcotics law. The present study aimed at exploring the impact of the introduction of the NpSG from three different perspectives-NPS users, staff of addiction care facilities, and members of law enforcement authorities-to better understand the dynamics surrounding such a change in legislation and to contribute to the body of international experience in dealing with NPS.

METHODS

Semi-structured narrative interviews were conducted with a total of 193 representatives of the three different groups affected by the law. These interviews included questions on perceived changes associated with the introduction of the NpSG as well as questions on opinions regarding legal and criminal policy issues. The analysis was carried out using qualitative content analysis according to Mayring.

RESULTS

Most interviewees welcomed the non-criminalisation approach of the NpSG but also noticed that, in practice, not much has changed for users. Nevertheless, the changes in legislation have had an impact on the market. For example, novel substances have emerged circumventing the new legislation. According to users, this has led some to reduce NPS use and others to adopt more hazardous consumption patterns. Overall, most respondents did not expect the introduction of the NpSG to bring any significant changes.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the idea of non-criminalisation inherent to the NpSG is appreciated and the generic approach has been well implemented in the law, thus covering a wide range of substances, the introduction of the law-perhaps for that very reason-has also had unintended and negative consequences, taking the cat-and-mouse game to the next level. To end the game, or at least to defuse the game situation, a combination of different strategies will be necessary, with legislation always playing a key role.

Nitrous oxide use among young people – new trends, policy challenges, and knowledge gaps

Purpose

Nitrous oxide (N2O) use for recreational purposes appears to have increased among young people in several countries, including Denmark, Australia, The Netherlands and the UK. This increase has prompted concern among health authorities and politicians. The purpose of this paper is to map out findings in the available literature about N2O use among young people to better understand current trends and contextualize the public concerns and the new policy responses to it.

Design/methodology/approach

The authors draw here on a range of sources, including research literature, reports and policy documents in English and Danish. Given the broad aim, the authors used a scoping study approach (Arksey and O’Malley, 2005).

Findings

The authors found literature on prevalence of use, health effects and policy regulations. The literature suggests that health harms associated with N2O use are generally associated with intensive and long-term use, and death is more likely where the means of administration entails a risk of suffocation. Overall, however, the analysis shows that substantial gaps exist in the available literature. The authors lack detailed knowledge on several issues, including comparable prevalence data of N2O use; the extent to which N2O is used with other drugs; how one can distinguish between harmful and non-harmful use in terms of both quantity inhaled and mode of administration; and on intended and unintended consequences of policy responses to this use.

Originality/value

The current increase and trend in inhaling N2O for intoxication among young people is under researched. This general review maps out what kind of knowledge would be valuable to have for prevention, harm reduction and policy interventions.

Interpol review of controlled substances 2016-2019

This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in controlled substances from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20Review%20Papers%202019.pdf.

The Novel Psychoactive Substances in the UK Project: empirical and conceptual review work to produce research recommendations

Background

Although illegal drug use has largely been declining in the UK over the past decade, this period has witnessed the emergence of a range of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) (‘legal highs’). These are new, mostly synthetic, substances that mimic the effects of existing drugs). Despite there being many causes for concern in relation to NPS, there has been little prior study of the burden associated with their use in public health terms. Clarity is lacking on research priorities in this rapidly developing literature.

Objectives

To inform the development of public health intervention research on NPS by reviewing existing data on their use, associated problems and potential responses to such problems.

Design

A scoping review and narrative synthesis of selected bodies of evidence was undertaken to summarise and evaluate what is known about NPS use and the related harms of, and responses to, such use. Relevant literature was identified from electronic databases (covering January 2006 to June 2016 inclusive), Google (Google Inc., Mountain View, CA, USA), relevant websites and online drug forums and by contacting experts. Articles were included if they were primary studies, secondary studies involving the analysis and interpretation of primary research or discussion papers. A conceptual framework postulating an evidence-informed public health approach to NPS use in the UK was developed through a pragmatic literature review, the iterative development of concepts and finalisation in light of the results from the empirical review work. The process also involved feedback from various stakeholders. Research recommendations were developed from both strands of work.

Results

A total of 995 articles were included in the scoping review, the majority of which related to individual-level health-related adverse effects attributable to NPS use. The prevalence of lifetime NPS use varied widely between (e.g. with higher prevalence in young males) and within population subgroups. The most commonly reported adverse effects were psychiatric/other neurological, cardiovascular, renal and gastrointestinal manifestations, and there is limited evidence available on responses. In these and other respects, available evidence is at an early stage of development. Initial evidence challenges the view that NPS should be treated differently from other illicit drugs. The conceptual framework indicated that much of the evidence that would be useful to inform public health responses does not yet exist. We propose a systems-based prevention approach that develops existing responses, is multilevel and life course informed in character, and emphasises commonalities between NPS and other legal and illegal drug use. We make 20 recommendations for research, including nine key recommendations.

Limitations

Scoping reviews do not interrogate evidence in depth, and the disjunction between the scoping review and the conceptual framework findings is worthy of careful attention.

Conclusions

Key research recommendations build on those that have previously been made and offer more evidence-based justification and detail, as previous recommendations have not yet been acted on. The case for decision-making on commissioning new research based on these recommendations is both strong and urgent.

Future work

The validity of recommendations generated through this project could be enhanced via further work with research commissioners, policy-makers, researchers and the public.

Study registration

The systematic review element of this study is registered as PROSPERO CRD42016026415.

Funding

The National Institute for Health Research Public Health Research programme.

Drowning in diversity? A systematic way of clustering and selecting a representative set of new psychoactive substances

A systematic way of clustering NPS yields medoids with potential in the assignment of emerging substances to systematically defined categories.