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Liu CM, Hua ZD, Jia W, Liu PP, Xu Y. Characterization of 17 unknown ketamine manufacturing by-product impurities by UHPLC-QTOF-MS. Drug Test Anal 2024; 16:750-760. [PMID: 35716363 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
This study initially reported the selection and characterization of 17 unknown impurities attributed to the manufacture process of ketamine. A total of 150 seized ketamine samples were investigated through ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time of flight (UHPLC-Q-TOF). Seventeen characteristic impurities were selected in accordance with four criteria: The compound was detected in over 10% of all 150 seized ketamine samples, the compound had at least one nitrogen, the unsaturation of the compound was more than 5, and the compound was stable in the dilution solvent solution for 48 h. The accurate masses of the protonated molecules and product ions of the target impurities were obtained based on the full scan mode and the product ion mode of Q-TOF, respectively. Lastly, the possible structures of the above impurities were tentatively elucidated in accordance with the synthetic route of ketamine, protonated molecules, and MS2 product ions. All 17 impurities had the same skeleton of deschloroketamine (DCK), but were substituted with additional chlorine, hydroxyl, methyl, cyclohexane, and o-chlorophenyl cyclopentyl ketone substituents. Under the electrospray ionization (ESI), the above impurities showed similar characteristic fragment ions through the dissociation of the CH3NH2, C2H6NH, H2O, CO, C2H4O, C4H6, and C2H2 moieties. The above impurities have been routinely used for the profiling analysis of seized ketamine samples in the National Narcotics Laboratory of China and employed to establish the tactical intelligence for law enforcement agencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cui-Mei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing, China
| | - Zhen-Dong Hua
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Jia
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing, China
| | - Pei-Pei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security, Beijing, China
| | - Yu Xu
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control of Zhejiang Province, National Anti-Drug Laboratory Zhejiang Regional Center, Hangzhou, China
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2
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McMillin GA, Morad AW, Boyd JM, Johnson-Davis KL, Metz TD, Smid MC, Krasowski MD. Biological Testing and Interpretation of Laboratory Results Associated with Detecting Newborns with Substance Exposure. Clin Chem 2024; 70:934-947. [PMID: 38549034 DOI: 10.1093/clinchem/hvae018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Substance use during pregnancy is common, as is biological testing that is intended to help identify prenatal exposures. However, there is no standardized requirement for biological testing with either maternal or newborn specimens, nor is there standardization related to when testing occurs, how frequently testing occurs, what specimen(s) to test, what substances to test for, or how to perform testing. CONTENT We review common specimen types tested to detect maternal and newborn substance exposure with a focus on urine, meconium, and umbilical cord tissue. We also review common analytical methods used to perform testing, including immunoassay, and mass spectrometry platforms. Considerations regarding the utilization of testing relative to the purpose of testing, the drug analyte(s) of interest, the specific testing employed, and the interpretation of results are emphasized to help guide decisions about clinical utilization of testing. We also highlight specific examples of unexpected results that can be used to guide interpretation and appropriate next steps. SUMMARY There are strengths and limitations associated with all approaches to detecting substance exposure in pregnant persons as well as biological testing to evaluate a newborn with possible substance exposure. Standardization is needed to better inform decisions surrounding evaluation of substance exposures in pregnant people and newborns. If biological sampling is pursued, testing options and results must be reviewed in clinical context, acknowledging that false-positive and -negative results can and do occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gwendolyn A McMillin
- Department of Pathology and ARUP Laboratories, University of Utah Health, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, United States
| | - Anna W Morad
- Department of Pediatrics, Academic General Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37232, United States
| | - Jessica M Boyd
- Department of Pathology and ARUP Laboratories, University of Utah Health, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, United States
| | - Kamisha L Johnson-Davis
- Department of Pathology and ARUP Laboratories, University of Utah Health, Salt Lake City, UT 84108, United States
| | - Torri D Metz
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Utah Health, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, United States
| | - Marcela C Smid
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Utah Health, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, United States
| | - Matthew D Krasowski
- Department of Pathology, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, IA 52242, United States
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Miller BM, Carter JF, Cresswell SL, Loughlin WA, Culshaw PN. Profiling ephedrine/pseudoephedrine and methamphetamine synthesised from benzaldehyde, nitroethane and dimethyl carbonate. Forensic Sci Int 2024; 360:112063. [PMID: 38776711 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2024.112063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2023] [Revised: 04/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
In previous work, a novel pathway for the synthesis of ephedrine/pseudoephedrine and methamphetamine using the precursors benzaldehyde, nitroethane and dimethyl carbonate was investigated, and an impurity profile presented. This paper presents chiral and stable isotope ratios of ephedrine/pseudoephedrine and methamphetamine synthesised by this pathway. Based on the chiral profile and the more negative δ13C (avg. -33.2‰) and more positive δ2H values, it is possible to distinguish ephedrine/pseudoephedrine and methamphetamine prepared from this pathway from those of "fully synthetic", "semi-synthetic" or "natural" origin. The more positive δ2H values of methamphetamine from this pathway allowed for differentiation from methamphetamine produced from phenyl-2-propanone. It was noted, however, that the use of stable isotope profiling would likely be limited when a benzaldehyde source having a negative δ2H value was used as a precursor. Furthermore, the stable isotope values alone could not be used to differentiate from methamphetamine prepared by the Akabori-Momotani reaction, highlighting the need for combination with impurity profiling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brendan M Miller
- Forensic Science Queensland, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia.
| | - James F Carter
- Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Sarah L Cresswell
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia
| | - Wendy A Loughlin
- School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD 4111, Australia
| | - Peter N Culshaw
- Forensic Science Queensland, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
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Mars S, Ondocsin J, Holm N, Ciccarone D. The influence of transformations in supply on methamphetamine initiation among people injecting opioids in the United States. Harm Reduct J 2024; 21:57. [PMID: 38443903 PMCID: PMC10913463 DOI: 10.1186/s12954-024-00976-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2024] [Indexed: 03/07/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Co-use of methamphetamine (MA) and opioids (pharmaceutical pills, heroin and fentanyls) has increased in the United States and is represented in rising mortality. Although coinciding with the import of low cost, high potency and purity methamphetamine, the relationship between supply and demand in propelling this polydrug use is not well understood. We consider the influence of macro changes in supply on the uptake of opioid and methamphetamine co-use by injection at the level of individual drug and injection initiation in West Virginia, a state which leads the US in drug overdose mortality. METHOD We recruited n = 30 people for semi-structured interviews who self-reported injecting heroin/fentanyl and using methamphetamine by any route at a West Virginia syringe service program and through snowball sampling. Interviews were recorded and transcripts analyzed using a thematic approach. Ethnographic observation was also conducted and recorded in fieldnotes. Sequence of substance and mode of use initiation and use trajectories for opioids and stimulants were charted for each participant. RESULTS A clear pattern of individual drug initiation emerged that matched each successive supply wave of the US overdose epidemic: 25 participants had initiated opioid use with pills, followed by heroin, often mixed with/replaced by fentanyl, and subsequently added methamphetamine use. For participants, the supply and consumption of opioid analgesics had set in motion a series of steps leading to the addition of stimulant injection to existing opioid injecting repertoires. Unlike other studies that have found a birth cohort effect in patterns of initiation, participants showed the same sequence across age groups. Considerations of economy, availability, dependence, tolerance and the erosion of taboos that marked transitions from opioid pills to heroin injection influenced these subsequent trajectories in novel ways. The form, timing and extent of opioid and stimulant consumption was influenced by four stages of the changing drug supply, which in turn reflected back on demand. CONCLUSION Transformations in the social meaning and supply of methamphetamine enabled these transitions while other desired, non-injectable drugs were difficult to obtain. We discuss policy implications of injectable drugs' market dominance at this location and possible interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Mars
- University of California, San Francisco, USA.
| | | | - Nicole Holm
- University of California, San Francisco, USA
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Segawa H, Okada Y, Yamamuro T, Kuwayama K, Tsujikawa K, Kanamori T, Iwata YT. Changes in methamphetamine impurity profiles induced by tert-butoxycarbonylation. J Forensic Sci 2023; 68:1913-1922. [PMID: 37578270 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.15359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Revised: 07/18/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/15/2023]
Abstract
Analysis of impurities in methamphetamine (MA) can be used to characterize MA seizures, investigate the relationship among MA seizures, and provide information on their synthetic routes. Recently, chemically derivatized MA, such as tert-butoxycarbonyl (t-Boc) MA, has been seized and attracted attention because routine forensic analysis methods may fail to correctly identify them. Chemical derivatization is a simple method for protection and deprotection of a compound, and protection of MA using t-Boc can be used to mask the MA. Although t-Boc derivatization might alter the impurity profile of MA, the actual changes in the impurity profile have not been investigated. In this study, changes in the MA impurity profile with tert-butoxycarbonylation were explored. MA and some typical impurities were derivatized using di-tert-butyl dicarbonate and water. Analysis of the impurities in five MA samples by gas chromatography showed that peaks both appeared and disappeared for the deprotected MA compared with the original MA. However, typical impurities important for characterizing MA seizures were conserved after derivatization and deprotection. Most of the new peaks were speculated to be contaminants introduced during derivatization and deprotection. A peak giving a mass spectrum similar to that of t-Boc MA was detected in the chromatograms of t-Boc MA and deprotected MA. Although the origin of this peak was not determined, it might be a marker for the MA involving tert-butoxycarbonylation. These results indicate that tert-butoxycarbonylation can alter the MA impurity profile; therefore, care is needed when interpreting results for derivatized MA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroki Segawa
- National Research Institute of Police Science, Chiba, Japan
| | - Yuki Okada
- National Research Institute of Police Science, Chiba, Japan
| | | | - Kenji Kuwayama
- National Research Institute of Police Science, Chiba, Japan
| | | | | | - Yuko T Iwata
- National Research Institute of Police Science, Chiba, Japan
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Toske SG, Mitchell JR, Myslinski JM, Walz AJ, Guthrie DB, Guest EM, Corbett CA, Lockhart ED. Organic impurity profiling of fentanyl samples associated with recent clandestine laboratory methods. J Forensic Sci 2023; 68:1470-1483. [PMID: 37203260 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.15281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Nearly a decade ago, fentanyl reappeared in the United States illicit drug market. In the years since, overdose deaths have continued to rise as well as the amount of fentanyl seized by law enforcement agencies. Research surrounding fentanyl production has been beneficial to regulatory actions and understanding illicit fentanyl production. In 2017, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) began collecting seized fentanyl samples from throughout the United States to track purity, adulteration trends, and synthetic impurity profiles for intelligence purposes. The appearance of a specific organic impurity, phenethyl-4-anilino-N-phenethylpiperidine (phenethyl-4-ANPP) indicates a shift in fentanyl production from the traditional Siegfried and Janssen routes to the Gupta-patent route. Through a collaboration between the DEA and the US Army's Combat Capabilities Development Command Chemical Biological Center (DEVCOM CBC), the synthesis of fentanyl was investigated via six synthetic routes, and the impurity profiles were compared to those of seized samples. The synthetic impurity phenethyl-4-ANPP was reliably observed in the Gupta-patent route published in 2013, and its structure was confirmed through isolation and structure elucidation. Organic impurity profiling results for illicit fentanyl samples seized in late 2021 have indicated yet another change in processing with the appearance of the impurity ethyl-4-anilino-N-phenethylpiperidine (ethyl-4-ANPP). Through altering reagents traditionally used in the Gupta-patent route, the formation of this impurity was determined to occur through a modification of the route as originally described in the Gupta patent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven G Toske
- Special Testing and Research Laboratory, United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Sterling, Virginia, USA
| | | | - James M Myslinski
- Research and Technology Directorate, Combat Capabilities Development Command Chemical Biological Center, U.S. Army, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, USA
| | - Andrew J Walz
- Research and Technology Directorate, Combat Capabilities Development Command Chemical Biological Center, U.S. Army, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland, USA
| | - David B Guthrie
- Special Testing and Research Laboratory, United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Sterling, Virginia, USA
| | - Elizabeth M Guest
- Special Testing and Research Laboratory, United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Sterling, Virginia, USA
| | - Charlotte A Corbett
- Special Testing and Research Laboratory, United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Sterling, Virginia, USA
| | - Emily D Lockhart
- Special Testing and Research Laboratory, United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Sterling, Virginia, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- David Love
- United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Special Testing and Research Laboratory, USA
| | - Nicole S. Jones
- RTI International, Applied Justice Research Division, Center for Forensic Sciences, 3040 E. Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 22709-2194, USA,70113th Street, N.W., Suite 750, Washington, DC, 20005-3967, USA,Corresponding author. RTI International, Applied Justice Research Division, Center for Forensic Sciences, 3040 E. Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 22709-2194, USA.
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8
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Brandt SD, Collins M. Addressing the challenges in forensic drug chemistry II. Drug Test Anal 2022; 14:400-403. [PMID: 35142073 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Simon D Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Michael Collins
- Australian Forensic Drug Laboratory, National Measurement Institute, Sydney, Australia
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