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Wilson PD, Yu X, Buck MJ. Nucleosome-binding by TP53, TP63, and TP73 is determined by the composition, accessibility, and helical orientation of their binding sites. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.05.03.592419. [PMID: 38746214 PMCID: PMC11092788 DOI: 10.1101/2024.05.03.592419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
The p53 family of transcription factors plays key roles in driving development and combating cancer by regulating gene expression. TP53, TP63, and TP73-the three members of the p53 family-regulate gene expression by binding to their DNA binding sites, many of which are situated within nucleosomes. To thoroughly examine the nucleosome-binding abilities of the p53 family, we used Pioneer-seq, a technique that assesses a transcription factor's binding affinity to its DNA binding sites at all possible positions within the nucleosome core particle. Using Pioneer-seq, we analyzed the binding affinity of TP53, TP63, and TP73 to 10 p53-family binding sites across the nucleosome core particle. We found that the affinity of TP53, TP63, and TP73 for nucleosomes was largely determined by the positioning of p53-family binding sites within nucleosomes; p53-family members bind strongly to the more accessible edges of nucleosomes but weakly to the less accessible centers of nucleosomes. We also found that the DNA-helical orientation of p53-family binding sites within nucleosomal DNA impacted the nucleosome-binding affinity of p53-family members. The composition of their binding sites also impacted each p53-family member's nucleosome-binding affinities only when the binding site was located in an accessible location. Taken together, our results show that the accessibility, composition, and helical orientation of p53-family binding sites collectively determine the nucleosome-binding affinities of TP53, TP63, and TP73. These findings help explain the rules underlying p53-family-nucleosome binding and thus provide requisite insight into how we may better control gene-expression changes involved in development and tumor suppression.
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Fisher ML, Balinth S, Hwangbo Y, Wu C, Ballon C, Wilkinson JE, Goldberg GL, Mills AA. BRD4 REGULATES TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR ∆Np63αTO DRIVE A CANCER STEM CELL PHENOTYPE IN SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMAS. Cancer Res 2021; 81:6246-6258. [PMID: 34697072 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-21-0707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Bromodomain containing protein 4 (BRD4) plays a critical role in controlling the expression of genes involved in development and cancer. Inactivation of BRD4 inhibits cancer growth, making it a promising anticancer drug target. The cancer stem cell population is a key driver of recurrence and metastasis in cancer patients. Here we show that cancer stem-like cells can be enriched from squamous cell carcinomas, and that these cells display an aggressive phenotype with enhanced stem cell marker expression, migration, invasion, and tumor growth. BRD4 was highly elevated in this aggressive subpopulation of cells, and its function is critical for these cancer stem cell-like properties. Moreover, BRD4 regulated ∆Np63α, a key transcription factor that is essential for epithelial stem cell function that is often overexpressed in cancers. BRD4 regulated an EZH2/STAT3 complex that led to increased ∆Np63α-mediated transcription. Targeting BRD4 in human squamous cell carcinoma reduces ∆Np63α, leading to inhibition of spheroid formation, migration, invasion and tumor growth. These studies identify a novel BRD4-regulated signaling network in a subpopulation of cancer stem-like cells elucidating a possible avenue for effective therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew L Fisher
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
| | | | - Yon Hwangbo
- Cancer Genetics, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
| | - Caizhi Wu
- Cancer Genetics, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
| | | | - John E Wilkinson
- Unit for Laboratory Animal Medicine, University of Michigan–Ann Arbor
| | - Gary L Goldberg
- Ob/Gyn, Gynecologic Oncology, Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwel
| | - Alea A Mills
- Div. of Cancer Genetics, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
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Dubied M, Montuire S, Navarro N. Commonalities and evolutionary divergences of mandible shape ontogenies in rodents. J Evol Biol 2021; 34:1637-1652. [PMID: 34449936 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
In mammals, significant changes take place during postnatal growth, linked to changes in diet (from sucking to gnawing). During this period, mandible development is highly interconnected with muscle growth and the epigenetic interactions between muscle and bone control the spatialization of bone formation and remodelling in response to biomechanical strain. This mechanism contributes to postnatal developmental plasticity and may have influenced the course of evolutionary divergences between species and clades. We sought to model postnatal changes at a macroevolutionary scale by analysing ontogenetic trajectories of mandible shape across 16 species belonging mainly to two suborders of Rodents, Myomorpha and Hystricomorpha, which differ in muscle attachments, tooth growth and life-history traits. Myomorpha species present a much stronger magnitude of changes over a shorter growth period. Among Hystricomorpha, part of the observed adult shape is set up prenatally, and most postnatal trajectories are genus-specific, which agrees with nonlinear developmental trajectories over longer gestational periods. Beside divergence at large scale, we find some collinearities between evolutionary and developmental trajectories. A common developmental trend was also observed, leading to enlargement of the masseter fossa during postnatal growth. The tooth growth, especially hypselodonty, seems to be a major driver of divergences of postnatal trajectories. These muscle- and tooth-related effects on postnatal trajectories suggest opportunities for developmental plasticity in the evolution of the mandible shape, opportunities that may have differed across Rodent clades.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgane Dubied
- Biogeosciences, UMR 6282 CNRS, EPHE, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France
| | - Sophie Montuire
- Biogeosciences, UMR 6282 CNRS, EPHE, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France.,EPHE, PSL University, Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Navarro
- Biogeosciences, UMR 6282 CNRS, EPHE, Université Bourgogne Franche-Comté, Dijon, France.,EPHE, PSL University, Paris, France
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Geyer SH, Maurer-Gesek B, Reissig LF, Rose J, Prin F, Wilson R, Galli A, Tudor C, White JK, Mohun TJ, Weninger WJ. The venous system of E14.5 mouse embryos-reference data and examples for diagnosing malformations in embryos with gene deletions. J Anat 2021; 240:11-22. [PMID: 34435363 PMCID: PMC8655187 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Approximately one‐third of randomly produced knockout mouse lines produce homozygous offspring, which fail to survive the perinatal period. The majority of these die around or after embryonic day (E)14.5, presumably from cardiovascular insufficiency. For diagnosing structural abnormalities underlying death and diseases and for researching gene function, the phenotype of these individuals has to be analysed. This makes the creation of reference data, which define normal anatomy and normal variations the highest priority. While such data do exist for the heart and arteries, they are still missing for the venous system. Here we provide high‐quality descriptive and metric information on the normal anatomy of the venous system of E14.5 embryos. Using high‐resolution digital volume data and 3D models from 206 genetically normal embryos, bred on the C57BL/6N background, we present precise descriptive and metric information of the venous system as it presents itself in each of the six developmental stages of E14.5. The resulting data shed new light on the maturation and remodelling of the venous system at transition of embryo to foetal life and provide a reference that can be used for detecting venous abnormalities in mutants. To explore this capacity, we analysed the venous phenotype of embryos from 7 knockout lines (Atp11a, Morc2a, 1700067K01Rik, B9d2, Oaz1, Celf4 and Coro1c). Careful comparisons enabled the diagnosis of not only simple malformations, such as dual inferior vena cava, but also complex and subtle abnormalities, which would have escaped diagnosis in the absence of detailed, stage‐specific referenced data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan H Geyer
- Division of Anatomy, MIC, BioImaging Austria/CMI, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Barbara Maurer-Gesek
- Division of Anatomy, MIC, BioImaging Austria/CMI, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Lukas F Reissig
- Division of Anatomy, MIC, BioImaging Austria/CMI, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Julia Rose
- Division of Anatomy, MIC, BioImaging Austria/CMI, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Fabrice Prin
- Crick Advanced Light Microscopy Facility, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | | | - Antonella Galli
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | - Catherine Tudor
- Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Cambridge, UK
| | | | | | - Wolfgang J Weninger
- Division of Anatomy, MIC, BioImaging Austria/CMI, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Goh KJ, Tan EK, Lu H, Roy S, Dunn NR. An NKX2-1 GFP and TP63 tdTomato dual fluorescent reporter for the investigation of human lung basal cell biology. Sci Rep 2021; 11:4712. [PMID: 33633173 PMCID: PMC7907081 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-83825-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Basal cells are multipotent stem cells responsible for the repair and regeneration of all the epithelial cell types present in the proximal lung. In mice, the elusive origins of basal cells and their contribution to lung development were recently revealed by high-resolution, lineage tracing studies. It however remains unclear if human basal cells originate and participate in lung development in a similar fashion, particularly with mounting evidence for significant species-specific differences in this process. To address this outstanding question, in the last several years differentiation protocols incorporating human pluripotent stem cells (hPSC) have been developed to produce human basal cells in vitro with varying efficiencies. To facilitate this endeavour, we introduced tdTomato into the human TP63 gene, whose expression specifically labels basal cells, in the background of a previously described hPSC line harbouring an NKX2-1GFP reporter allele. The functionality and specificity of the NKX2-1GFP;TP63tdTomato hPSC line was validated by directed differentiation into lung progenitors as well as more specialised lung epithelial subtypes using an organoid platform. This dual fluorescent reporter hPSC line will be useful for tracking, isolating and expanding basal cells from heterogenous differentiation cultures for further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim Jee Goh
- Institute of Medical Biology, Agency for Science Technology and Research (A∗STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, #06-06 Immunos, Singapore, 138648, Singapore
- Skin Research Institute of Singapore, 11 Mandalay Road #17-01 Clinical Sciences Building, Singapore, 308232, Singapore
| | - Ee Kim Tan
- Institute of Medical Biology, Agency for Science Technology and Research (A∗STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, #06-06 Immunos, Singapore, 138648, Singapore
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Clinical Sciences Building, 11 Mandalay Road, Singapore, 308232, Singapore
| | - Hao Lu
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Proteos, 61 Biopolis Drive, Singapore, 138673, Singapore
| | - Sudipto Roy
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Proteos, 61 Biopolis Drive, Singapore, 138673, Singapore
- Department of Pediatrics, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 1E Kent Ridge Road, Singapore, 119288, Singapore
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore, 117543, Singapore
| | - N Ray Dunn
- Institute of Medical Biology, Agency for Science Technology and Research (A∗STAR), 8A Biomedical Grove, #06-06 Immunos, Singapore, 138648, Singapore.
- Skin Research Institute of Singapore, 11 Mandalay Road #17-01 Clinical Sciences Building, Singapore, 308232, Singapore.
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Clinical Sciences Building, 11 Mandalay Road, Singapore, 308232, Singapore.
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Rangel-Huerta E, Guzman A, Maldonado E. The dynamics of epidermal stratification during post-larval development in zebrafish. Dev Dyn 2020; 250:175-190. [PMID: 32877571 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2020] [Revised: 08/08/2020] [Accepted: 08/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The epidermis, as a defensive barrier, is a consistent trait throughout animal evolution. During post-larval development, the zebrafish epidermis thickens by stratification or addition of new cell layers. Epidermal basal stem cells, expressing the transcription factor p63, are known to be involved in this process. Zebrafish post-larval epidermal stratification is a tractable system to study how stem cells participate in organ growth. METHODS We used immunohistochemistry, in combination with EdU cell proliferation detection, to study zebrafish epidermal stratification. For this procedure, we selected a window of post-larval stages (5-8 mm of standard length or SL, which normalizes age by size). Simultaneously, we used markers for asymmetric cell division and the Notch signaling pathway. RESULTS We found that epidermal stratification is the consequence of several events, including changes in cell shape, active cell proliferation and asymmetrical cell divisions. We identified a subset of highly proliferative epidermal cells with reduced levels of p63, which differed from the basal stem cells with high levels of p63. Additionally, we described different mechanisms that participate in the stratification process, including the phosphorylation of p63, asymmetric cell division regulated by the Par3 and LGN proteins, and expression of Notch genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Rangel-Huerta
- EvoDevo Research Group, Unidad de Sistemas Arrecifales, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Puerto Morelos, Quintana Roo, Mexico.,Posgrado en Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, UNAM, Puerto Morelos, Quintana Roo, Mexico
| | - Aida Guzman
- EvoDevo Research Group, Unidad de Sistemas Arrecifales, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Puerto Morelos, Quintana Roo, Mexico.,Estudio Técnico Especializado en Histopatología, Escuela Nacional Preparatoria, ENP, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, UNAM, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Ernesto Maldonado
- EvoDevo Research Group, Unidad de Sistemas Arrecifales, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Puerto Morelos, Quintana Roo, Mexico
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Abstract
p63 (also known as TP63) is a transcription factor of the p53 family, along with p73. Multiple isoforms of p63 have been discovered and these have diverse functions encompassing a wide array of cell biology. p63 isoforms are implicated in lineage specification, proliferative potential, differentiation, cell death and survival, DNA damage response and metabolism. Furthermore, p63 is linked to human disease states including cancer. p63 is critical to many aspects of cell signaling, and in this Cell science at a glance article and the accompanying poster, we focus on the signaling cascades regulating TAp63 and ΔNp63 isoforms and those that are regulated by TAp63 and ΔNp63, as well the role of p63 in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew L Fisher
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, 11724, USA
| | - Seamus Balinth
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, 11724, USA.,Stony Brook University, Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
| | - Alea A Mills
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, NY, 11724, USA
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Recent advances in the molecular mechanism of thalidomide teratogenicity. Biomed Pharmacother 2020; 127:110114. [PMID: 32304852 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 03/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Thalidomide was first marketed in 1957 but soon withdrawn because of its notorious teratogenicity. Studies on the mechanism of action of thalidomide revealed the pleiotropic properties of this class of drugs, including their anti-inflammatory, antiangiogenic and immunomodulatory activities. Based on their notable activities, thalidomide and its analogues, lenalidomide and pomalidomide, have been repurposed to treat erythema nodosum leprosum, multiple myeloma and other haematological malignancies. Thalidomide analogues were recently found to hijack CRL4CRBN ubiquitin ligase to target a number of cellular proteins for ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation. Thalidomide-mediated degradation of SALL4 and p63, transcription factors essential for embryonic development, very likely plays a critical role in thalidomide embryopathy. In this review, we provide a brief retrospective summary of thalidomide-induced teratogenesis, the mechanism of thalidomide activity, and the latest advances in the molecular mechanism of thalidomide-induced birth malformations.
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p63 is a cereblon substrate involved in thalidomide teratogenicity. Nat Chem Biol 2019; 15:1077-1084. [DOI: 10.1038/s41589-019-0366-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Zheng J, Liu H, Zhan Y, Liu Y, Wong SW, Cai T, Feng H, Han D. Tooth defects of EEC and AEC syndrome caused by heterozygous TP63 mutations in three Chinese families and genotype-phenotype correlation analyses of TP63-related disorders. Mol Genet Genomic Med 2019; 7:e704. [PMID: 31050217 PMCID: PMC6565570 DOI: 10.1002/mgg3.704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Revised: 03/14/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Ectrodactyly-Ectodermal dysplasia-Cleft lip/palate (EEC) syndrome and Ankyloblepharon-Ectodermal defects-Cleft lip/palate (AEC) syndrome belong to p63 syndromes, a group of rare disorders exhibiting a wide variety of clinical manifestations. TP63 mutations have been reported to be associated with both EEC and AEC. METHODS Analysis of whole exome sequencing (WES) from patients with EEC or AEC syndrome and Sanger sequencing from family members. RESULTS We confirmed that three Chinese pedigrees affected with EEC or AEC harboring a distinct TP63 mutation, and described novel clinical phenotypes of EEC and AEC, including the presence of cubitus valgus deformity and taurodontism, which were discordant to their classical disease features. We also analyzed the genotype-phenotype correlation based on our findings. CONCLUSION We reported that the cubitus valgus deformity in patients with EEC and severe taurodontism in a patient with AEC had not been mentioned previously. Our study expands the phenotypic spectrum of EEC and AEC syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinglei Zheng
- Department of Prosthodontics, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
| | - Haochen Liu
- Department of Prosthodontics, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
| | - Yuan Zhan
- National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, The 3rd Dental Clinic, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
| | - Yang Liu
- Department of Prosthodontics, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
| | - Sing-Wai Wong
- Oral and Craniofacial Biomedicine Curriculum, School of Dentistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Tao Cai
- National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Hailan Feng
- Department of Prosthodontics, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
| | - Dong Han
- Department of Prosthodontics, National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, Beijing Key Laboratory of Digital Stomatology, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
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Phen A, Greer J, Uppal J, Der J, Boughner JC. Upper jaw development in the absence of teeth: New insights for craniodental evo-devo integration. Evol Dev 2018; 20:146-159. [PMID: 29998528 DOI: 10.1111/ede.12261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In p63-null mice (p63-/- ), teeth fail to form but the mandible forms normally; conversely, the upper jaw skeleton is malformed. Here we explored whether lack of dental tissues contributed to midfacial dysmorphologies in p63-/- mice by testing if facial prominence defects appeared before odontogenesis failed. We also investigated gene dose effects by testing if one wild type (WT) p63 allele (p63+/- ) was sufficient for normal upper jaw skeleton formation. We micro-CT scanned PFA-fixed p63-/- , p63+/- , and WT (p63+/+ ) adult and embryonic mice aged E10-E14. Next, we landmarked mandibular (MdP), maxillary (MxP) and nasal prominences (NPs), and facial bones. 3D landmark data were assessed using Principal Component, Canonical Variate, Partial Least Squares, and other statistical analyses. The p63-/- embryos showed MxP and NP malformations by E12, despite the presence of dental tissues. MdP shape was comparable among p63-/- , p63+/- , and p63+/+ embryos. Upper jaw shape was comparable between p63+/+ and p63+/- adults. The upper jaw and its dentition both require p63 signaling, but not each other's presence, to form properly. One WT p63 allele enables normal midfacial morphogenesis; gene dose may be a target for jaw macroevolution. Jaw-specific genetic mechanisms likely integrate the evo-devo of dentitions with upper versus lower jaws.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa Phen
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Justine Greer
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Jasmene Uppal
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Jasmine Der
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
| | - Julia C Boughner
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada
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